Nội dung

BEG_i-144.qxd 6/10/04 5:18 PM Page i WBI LEARNING RESOURCES SERIES Beyond Economic Growth An Introduction to Sustainable Development Second Edition Tatyana P. Soubbotina The World Bank Washington, D.C. BEG_i-144.qxd 6/10/04 1:46 PM Page ii Copyright © 2004 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved First printing September 2000 The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this book are entirely those of the author and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this volume do not imply on the part of the World Bank Group any judgment on the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. The material in this publication is copyrighted. The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission promptly. Permission to photocopy items for internal or personal use, for the internal or personal use of specific clients, or for educational classroom use, is granted by the World Bank, provided that the appropriate fee is paid directly to Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, U.S.A., telephone 978-750-8400, fax 978-750-4470, www.copyright.com. Please contact the Copyright Clearance Center before photocopying items. For permission to reprint individual articles or chapters, please fax your request with complete information to the Republication Department, Copyright Clearance Center, fax 978-750-4470. All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher, World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, fax 202-522-2422, e-mail pubrights@worldbank.org. For more information and classroom materials on issues of sustainable development, visit our web sites at www.worldbank.org/depweb and www.worldbank.org/wbi/developmenteducation. Please send comments to dep@worldbank.org. Tatyana P. Soubbotina is a consultant at the World Bank Institute. Cover and chapter opener design by Patricia Hord Graphic Design. Typesetting by Precision Graphics. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data has been applied for. BEG_i-144.qxd 6/10/04 1:46 PM Page iii Contents Acknowledgments vi Introduction 1 Difficult Questions, Different Answers Data and Development 2 About This Book 3 How to Use The Book 4 1. 2. What Is Development? 7 Goals and Means of Development Sustainable Development 8 2 7 Comparing Levels of Development 12 Gross Domestic Product and Gross National Product Grouping Countries by Their Level of Development 3. World Population Growth 4. Economic Growth Rates 5. Income Inequality 28 Cross-country Comparisons of Income Inequality Lorenz Curves and Gini Indexes 29 Costs and Benefits of Income Inequality 31 12 15 17 23 6. Poverty and Hunger 33 The Nature of Poverty 33 The Geography of Poverty 34 The Vicious Circle of Poverty 35 The Challenge of Hunger 38 7. Education 43 Education and Human Capital 43 Primary Education and Literacy 46 Issues in Secondary and Tertiary Education 28 48 iii BEG_i-144.qxd 6/10/04 1:46 PM Page iv 8. 9. Health and Longevity 53 Global Trends 53 Population Age Structures 55 The Burden of Infectious Disease Lifestyle Challenges 61 57 Industrialization and Postindustrialization Major Structural Shifts 63 Knowledge Revolution 65 Implications for Development Sustainability 67 10. Urban Air Pollution Particulate Air Pollution Airborne Lead Pollution 63 69 70 73 11. Public and Private Enterprises: Finding the Right Mix The Dilemma of Public-Private Ownership 77 Is There a Trend toward Privatization? 80 12. Globalization: International Trade and Migration Waves of Modern Globalization 83 Costs and Benefits of Free Trade 85 Geography and Composition of Global Trade 87 International Migration 91 13. Globalization: Foreign Investment and Foreign Aid Private Capital Flows 96 Official Development Assistance 99 14. The Risk of Global Climate Change Whose Responsibility Is It? 103 Will the North-South cooperation work? 15. Composite Indicators of Development “Development Diamonds” 110 Human Development Index 111 iv 102 107 110 76 83 95 BEG_i-144.qxd 6/10/04 5:18 PM Page v 16. Indicators of Development Sustainability 113 Composition of National Wealth 113 Accumulation of National Wealth As an Indicator of Sustainable Development Material Throughput and Environmental Space 117 Social Capital and Public Officials’ Corruption 119 17. Development Goals and Strategies Millennium Development Goals 123 The Role of National Development Policies Difficult Choices 129 Glossary 114 123 127 131 Annex 1: Classification of Economies by Income and Region Annex 2: Data Tables 149 Table 1. Indicators to Chapter 1–5 Table 2. Indicators to Chapter 6–7 Table 3. Indicators to Chapter 8–9 Table 4. Indicators to Chapter 10–13 Table 5. Indicators to Chapter 14–16 145 150 160 170 180 192 Annex 3: Millennium Development Goals 203 v BEG_i-144.qxd 6/10/04 1:46 PM Page vi Acknowledgments The preparation of this book benefited greatly from the support and valuable contributions of many colleagues in the World Bank Institute (WBI) and in other parts of the World Bank. I am particularly indebted to the head of WBI, Frannie Leautier, for her support of the second edition of this book and to two successive managers of the WBI Development Education Program (DEP), Katherine Sheram and Danielle Carbonneau, for the inspiration and important inputs they provided to this challenging multiyear project. The work on this book was also greatly facilitated by close collaboration with the other DEP team members, including Evi Vestergaard, Kelly Grable, and Brooke Prater. Next I would like to express my sincere appreciation to those World Bank experts who provided extremely useful comments, suggestions, and inputs during the drafting of the first and second editions of this book: Carl Dahlman, Dusan Vujovic, Gregory Prakas, Joanne Epp, John Oxenham, John Middleton, vi Kirk Hamilton, Ksenia Lvovsky, Magda Lovei, Peter Miovic, Philip Karp, Simon Commander, Tatyana Leonova, Thomas Merrick, Tim Heleniak, Vinod Thomas, Vladimir Kreacic, and William Prince. Special thanks go to John Didier for his dedicated help with the final editing of the first edition and unfailing support during the preparation of the second edition. I am also grateful to all of my colleagues in Russia, Latvia, and Belarus for their knowledgeable advice during our joint work on the respective country adaptations of this book, particularly Vladimir Avtonomov, Andrei Mitskevitch, Erika Sumilo, and Mikhail Kovalev. An important role in pilot-testing and distributing the first edition and its three country adaptations was played by DEP partners in the US National Council on Economic Education (NCEE), in Russia’s State University–Higher School of Economics, in the Latvian Association of Teachers of Economics (LATE), and in the Belarusian Institute for PostDiploma Teacher Training. BEG_i-144.qxd 6/10/04 1:46 PM Page 1 Introduction The underlying premise of this book is that in order for development to be sustainable, it has to be comprehensive—it has to successfully balance economic goals with social and environmental. “Development” is really much more than simply economic growth. The understanding of development can differ among countries and even among individuals, but it usually goes far beyond the objective of increased average income to include things like freedom, equity, health, education, safe environment, and much more. Hence the title of this book: “Beyond Economic Growth.” By publishing this book, the Development Education Program (DEP) of the World Bank Institute (WBI) seeks to help more people understand that in the present-day globalized world international development should be everyone’s concern because it affects everyone’s life. Ordinary people including youth—not just economists and development experts—should be prepared to discuss and participate in making decisions on the most pressing issues of sustainable development, proceeding from their own cherished values and based on reliable data and information from reputable international sources (like the World Bank and the UN specialized development agencies). This book is designed to introduce readers to some major challenges in today’s sustainable development (from the global to the national and perhaps even to the local level) and help them gain a more holistic and realistic view of their country’s situation in a global context. Because development is a comprehensive process involving economic as well as social and environmental changes, this book takes an interdisciplinary approach. It attempts to explain some complex relationships among various aspects of development, including population growth, economic growth, improvements in education and health, industrialization and postindustrialization, environmental degradation, and globalization. Young people and learners of all ages, teachers and students, are invited to explore these relationships even further—using the statistical data and theoretical concepts presented in this book—and to engage in informed discussions of the controversial development issues closest to their hearts. “An Invitation to a Global Discussion” could be another appropriate subtitle for this book. 1 BEG_i-144.qxd 6/10/04 1:46 PM Page 2 BEYOND ECONOMIC GROWTH Difficult Questions, Different Answers The book starts with three difficult questions: What is development? How can we compare the levels of development achieved by different countries? And what does it take to make development sustainable? The author does not claim to have all the answers to these and other controversial questions posed directly or indirectly in the book. Instead, readers are encouraged to suggest their own answers based on facts— necessary for understanding the constraints of reality—but inevitably rooted in personal value judgments determining different relevant weights attached to certain goals and costs of development by different people. For example, for some people development means primarily higher incomes, for others, a cleaner environment. Some are most interested in personal security, others, in personal freedom. Note that these goals and values are not always easily compatible—faster economic growth may be more damaging to the natural environment and a strengthening of personal security may require limiting some personal freedoms. The abundance of such tradeoffs in development is one of the reasons why there are so many open questions in this book. Acknowledging that many answers inevitably involve value judgments, which makes absolute objectivity impos2 sible, the author has based this book on one simple ideological principle: development should be a tool for improving the lives of all people. It is up to people (including the readers of this book) to define for themselves the meaning of a better life and to prioritize the goals of development and the means of their achievement. Development Data Perhaps the main attraction of this book is that it is based on plentiful statistical data for most countries, presented in data tables in Annex 2 as well as in figures, maps, and references in the text. Statistics can be powerful tools for learning about development. They can help paint a more accurate picture of reality, identify issues and problems, and suggest possible explanations and solutions. But statistics have their limitations too. They are more reliable for some countries than for others. They often allow very different interpretations, particularly when considered in isolation from other important statistics. And because it takes a long time to collect and verify some statistics (particularly on a global scale), they may seem to be or really be out of date before they are even published. It is also important to remember that many aspects of development cannot be accurately measured by statistics. Examples include people’s attitudes, feelings, values, ideas, freedoms, and cultural achievements. Thus statisti- BEG_i-144.qxd 6/10/04 1:46 PM Page 3 INTRODUCTION cal data can tell us only part of the story of development—but it is an important part. Note that comparing development data on your country with those on other countries can be extremely revealing for several reasons. First, seeing one’s country in a global context and learning how it is different from or similar to other countries can improve understanding of the country’s present-day status and of its development prospects and priorities. Second, because the economies of the world are becoming increasingly interdependent, development processes in each country can usually be better understood when studied in the context of their interaction with related processes in other countries. The author hopes that this book will help satisfy popular demand for information about global development and at the same time help readers gain some new insights into their own country’s recent past, present, and future. The statistics presented here were the most recent available when this book was written. Most of the data in the data tables, figures, and maps are from World Bank publications, including the World Development Indicators (2000, 2001, 2003), the World Development Report (various years), and other statistical and analytical studies. Figures 4.4 and 9.2 have been included with the permission of the International Monetary Fund. Some data were also borrowed from the specialized United Nations agencies, such as the UN Development Program, World Health Organization, and UN Food and Agriculture Organization (as noted in the text). About This Book This book was prepared as part of an international project under the World Bank Institute’s Development Education Program (DEP). The main objective was to create a template text about the global issues of sustainable development— social, economic, and environmental— that could then be customized for various countries by teams of local educators and published in their respective national languages. It was also expected that students and other readers interested in development issues could use this international template without adaptation as a source of relatively current statistical data and widely accepted development concepts for further research and discussions. The first edition was published in 2000 and simultaneously posted on the DEP website in the original English and in French and Spanish translations. The print copies were distributed in the USA and internationally, mostly in countries where students were prepared to read in English (in Sri Lanka and India, in Ghana and Uganda, in Lithuania and Estonia). 3 BEG_i-144.qxd 6/10/04 5:20 PM Page 4 BEYOND ECONOMIC GROWTH In addition, the first national adaptation was developed and published in Russia as The World and Russia student book, officially approved by the Russian Ministry of General and Professional Education for secondary students in the 10th and 11th grades studying economics, social studies, geography, and environmental studies. The three local coauthors of the Russian adaptation represented three leading research and educational institutions in Moscow. The Latvian adaptation, The World and Latvia, was prepared in coauthorship with Erika Sumilo, a professor and department head at the University of Latvia, and published in Latvian. The book was awarded a national prize as the best Latvian book on economics published in 2002. The latest national adaptation was undertaken in Belarus in coauthorship with Mikhail Kovalev, a professor and department head at Belarus State University, and was published as The World and Belarus in 2003. Most of these Russian-language books were distributed among secondary schools specializing in social and humanitarian studies. Thanks to the rich history of this book, the author has had many opportunities to receive feedback from students and educators in many countries, developed as well as developing. Many of their com4 ments were taken into account in the course of preparing this second edition. As compared with the first edition, the second one is completely updated and revised. All the data and charts are more current by 4–5 years and new materials are included on a number of issues such as Millennium Development Goals, the nature of poverty, global hunger, the burden of infectious diseases (HIV/AIDS, TB, malaria), the knowledge revolution, stages of modern globalization, international migration, and the costs of government corruption. Additional controversial questions for further discussion are included as well. The Development Education Program hopes that this new edition will find its way into classrooms as well as family rooms in many countries. How to Use The Book Because all development issues are intricately interrelated, there is no single, best sequence in which to study them. Thus the structure of this book allows the readers to start with almost any chapter that they might find the most intriguing. The author, however, would advise not skipping Chapters 1 and 2 since they serve as a general introduction to the book and present some important basic concepts on which the following chapters build. Note also that Chapters 15, 16, and 17 can be read as a continu-