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Mendez / Specialty Optical Fibers Handbook prelims Final Proof page i 31.10.2006 9:35pm Specialty Optical Fibers Handbook This page intentionally left blank Mendez / Specialty Optical Fibers Handbook prelims Final Proof page iii 31.10.2006 9:35pm Specialty Optical Fibers Handbook A L E X I S M ÉN D E Z MCH Engineering, LLC, Alameda, California T. F. MORSE Photonics Center, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier Mendez / Specialty Optical Fibers Handbook prelims Final Proof page iv 31.10.2006 9:35pm Academic Press in an imprint of Elsevier 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA 525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, California 92101-4495, USA 84 Theobald’s Road, London WCIX 8RR, UK This book is printed on acid-free paper. Copyright ß 2007, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone: (+44) 1865 843830, fax: (+44) 1865 853333, E-mail: permissions@elsevier.co.uk. You may also complete your request on-line via the Elsevier homepage (http://elsevier.com), by selecting ‘‘Customer Support’’ and then ‘‘Obtaining Permissions.’’ Library of Congress Cataloging-in Publication Data Application Submitted British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 13: 978-0-12-369406-5 ISBN 10: 0-12-369406-X For information on all Elsevier Academic Press publications visit our Web site at www.books.elsevier.com Printed in the United States of America 06 07 08 09 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Mendez / Specialty Optical Fibers Handbook prelims Final Proof page v 31.10.2006 9:35pm To my wife Shiva for her unconditional love, support, and patience A.M. ‘‘Under the shade of your tresses, how softly slept my heart, intoxicated and lovely, so peaceful and so free . . . ’’ RUMI To Edelgard for her patience, wisdom, and love. T.F.M. This page intentionally left blank Mendez / Specialty Optical Fibers Handbook prelims Final Proof page vii 31.10.2006 9:35pm Contents Dedication Editors List of Contributors Preface 1 Specialty Optical Fiber Market Overview Stephen Montgomery 1.1 1.2 1.3 2 Market Overview 1.1.1 Production Versus Consumption 1.1.2 Rapidly Growing Need to Use Fiber Optic Sensors 1.1.3 Weapon System Development 1.1.4 100–1000 Improvements in Performance 1.1.5 High Cost of Functionality 1.1.6 Multiple Features in the Same Specialty Fibers Specialty Optical Fibers: A Few Selected Examples 1.2.1 Fluoride Fiber 1.2.2 Tellurite Fiber 1.2.3 Bismuth-Doped Fiber 1.2.4 Polarizing Fiber 1.2.5 Photonic Crystal Fiber—Holey Fibers 1.2.6 Dispersion-Compensating Fiber 1.2.7 High-Index Fiber 1.2.8 Polarization-Maintaining Fiber 1.2.9 Photosensitive Fiber 1.2.10 Erbium-Doped Fiber Conclusions v xxiii xxv xxxvii 1 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 6 7 8 11 11 13 13 17 Light-Guiding Fundamentals and Fiber Design Robert Lingle, Jr., David W. Peckham, Alan McCurdy, and Jinkee Kim 19 2.1 2.2 19 20 Introduction Physical Structure of a Telecommunications Optical Fiber vii Mendez / Specialty Optical Fibers Handbook prelims Final Proof page viii Contents viii 3 31.10.2006 9:35pm 2.3 Linear Lightwave Propagation in an Optical Fiber 2.3.1 Electromagnetic Preliminaries 2.3.2 Intuition from the Slab Waveguide 2.3.3 Optical Fiber: A Cylindrical Waveguide 2.3.4 The Linearly Polarized Mode Set LPlm 2.3.5 Finite Element Analysis for Waveguide Calculations 2.4 Working Definitions of Cutoff Wavelength 2.4.1 Introduction 2.4.2 Theoretical Cutoff Wavelength 2.4.3 Effective Cutoff Wavelengths 2.5 Impact of Profile Design on Macrobending Losses 2.5.1 The Depressed Cladding Fiber Design 2.5.2 Phenomenology of Macrobending Loss 2.6 Fiber Attenuation Loss 2.7 Origins of Chromatic Dispersion 2.7.1 Introduction 2.7.2 Material Dispersion 2.7.3 Waveguide Dispersion 2.8 Polarization Mode Dispersion 2.8.1 Overview 2.8.2 Background 2.8.3 Modeling and Simulation 2.8.4 Control of PMD in Fiber Manufacturing 2.8.5 Measurement of PMD 2.8.6 Fiber-to-Cable-to-Field PMD Mapping 2.9 Microbending Loss 2.9.1 Microbending 2.10 Fiber Nonlinearities 2.10.1 Overview 2.10.2 Background References 20 20 22 24 25 27 29 29 29 29 32 32 34 36 38 38 38 42 45 45 46 48 49 51 53 55 55 60 60 61 65 Overview of Materials and Fabrication Technologies John B. MacChesney, Ryan Bise, and Alexis Méndez 69 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 69 70 71 73 75 Double-Crucible Technique Vapor-Deposition Techniques Outside Vapor Deposition Vertical Axial Deposition Direct Nanoparticle Deposition Mendez / Specialty Optical Fibers Handbook prelims Final Proof page ix 31.10.2006 9:35pm Contents 4 ix 3.6 Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition 3.6.1 Chemical Equilibria: Dopant Incorporation 3.6.2 Purification from Hydroxyl Contamination 3.6.3 Thermophoresis 3.7 Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition 3.8 Sol-Gel Processes 3.8.1 Alkoxide Sol-Gel Processing 3.8.2 Colloidal Sol-Gel Processing 3.9 Sol-Gel Microstructure Fiber Fabrication 3.10 Fiber Drawing Acknowledgments References 77 78 80 80 82 83 83 84 86 88 91 91 Optical Fiber Coatings Steven R. Schmid and Anthony F. Toussaint 95 4.1 4.2 4.3 95 96 97 Introduction Early History of Coatings for Optical Fiber Evolution of Optical Fibers and Protective Coatings 4.3.1 Coating Contributions to Microbending Minimization 4.3.2 Glass Fiber Fracture Mechanics and Coating Contributions to Fiber Strength Retention 4.3.3 Durability of Fiber Optic Coatings 4.4 Cabling of Optical Fibers 4.5 Specialty Coatings 4.6 Basics of Optical Fiber Chemistry 4.6.1 Oligomers 4.6.2 Monomers 4.6.3 Photoinitiators 4.6.4 Adhesion Promoters 4.6.5 Other Additives 4.7 Application of Coatings on the Draw Tower 4.7.1 Coating Cure Speed Measurement Techniques 4.7.2 Cured Properties of Coatings on Fiber 4.7.3 Test Methods for UV-Curable Liquids and UV-Cured Films 4.7.4 Coating Adhesion 4.8 Summary Acknowledgments References 97 99 100 102 103 103 103 105 105 105 106 108 110 113 115 117 117 118 118