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An Introduction to MATERIALS For the last decade, the Science for Conservators volumes have been the key basic texts for conservators throughout the world. Scientific concepts are fundamental to the conservation of artefacts of every type, yet many conservators have little or no scientific training. These introductory volumes provide non-scientists with the essential theoretical background to their work. The Heritage: Care-Preservation-Management programme has been designed to serve the needs of the museum and heritage community worldwide. It publishes books and information services for professional museum and heritage workers, and for all the organizations that service the museum community. Editor-in-chief: Andrew Wheatcroft The Development of Costume Naomi Tarrant Forward Planning: A handbook of business, corporate and development planning for museums and galleries Edited by Timothy Ambrose and Sue Runyard The Handbook for Museums Gary Edson and David Dean Heritage Gardens: Care, conservation and management Sheena Mackellar Goulty Heritage and Tourism: in ‘the global village’ Priscilla Boniface and Peter J.Fowler The Industrial Heritage: Managing resources and uses Judith Alfrey and Tim Putnam Managing Quality Cultural Tourism Priscilla Boniface Museum Basics Timothy Ambrose and Crispin Paine Museum Exhibition: Theory and practice David Dean Museum, Media, Message Edited by Eilean Hooper-Greenhill Museum Security and Protection: A handbook for cultural heritage institutions ICOM and ICMS Museums 2000: Politics, people, professionals and profit Edited by Patrick J.Boylan Museums and the Shaping of Knowledge Eilean Hooper-Greenhill Museums and their Visitors Eilean Hooper-Greenhill Museums without Barriers: A new deal for disabled people Foundation de France and ICOM The Past in Contemporary Society: Then/now iii Peter J.Fowler The Representation of the Past: Museums and heritage in the post-modern world Kevin Walsh Towards the Museum of the Future: New European perspectives Edited by Roger Miles and Lauro Zavala Museums: A Place to Work: Planning museum careers Jane R.Glaser and Artemis A.Zenetou Marketing the Museum Fiona McLean Managing Museums and Galleries Michael A.Fopp Museum Ethics Edited by Gary Edson The Politics of Display Edited by Sharon Macdonald SCIENCE FOR CONSERVATORS Volume 1 An Introduction to MATERIALS Conservation Science Teaching Series The Conservation Unit of the Museums & Galleries Commission in conjunction with Routledge London and New York Scientific Editor Jonathan Ashley-Smith Keeper of Conservation Victoria & Albert Museum Series Editor (Books 1–3) Helen Wilks Adviser Graham Weaver Senior Lecturer Department of Materials Science Faculty of Technology Open University Authors Advisers Anne Moncrieff Jim Black Conservation Officer Summer Schools Science Museum Institute of Archaeology Graham Weaver University College London Senior Lecturer Department of Suzanne Keene Head of Materials Science Collections Services Group Faculty of Technology Science Museum Open University Jane McAusland Private Conservator Anna Plowden Private Conservator First published by the Crafts Council 1983 Second impression 1984 Published by The Conservation Unit of the Museums & Galleries Commission in 1987 New hardback and paperback edition published in 1992 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 Reprinted 1994, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2002 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” © 1987, 1992 Museums & Galleries Commission Illustrations by Berry/Fallon Design Designed by Robert Updegraff and Gillian Crossley-Holland All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN 0-203-98944-9 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-415-07165-8 (Print Edition) Contents Introduction ix Chapter 1 What science is 1 Chapter 2 Beginning chemistry 16 Chapter 3 Molecules and chemical equations 26 Chapter 4 Atomic structure and chemical bonding 43 Chapter 5 Relating chemical names to structure 70 Answers to exercises 86 Recommended reading 91 Index 96 Preface to the 1992 edition The science of conserving artworks and other items of cultural significance has undergone considerable change since 1982 when this series was instigated, mostly involving the development or application of new materials or techniques. Their understanding by conservators, restorers and students continues, nonetheless, to depend on familiarity with the underlying scientific principles which do not change and which are clearly explained in these books. In response to continued international demand for this series, The Conservation Unit is pleased to be associated with Routledge in presenting these new editions as part of The Heritage: Care—Preservation— Management programme. The volumes are now enhanced by lists of recommended reading which will lead the reader to further helpful texts, developing scientific ideas in a conservation setting and bringing their application up to date. Introduction The book was lying near Alice on the table……she turned over the leaves, to find some part that she could read. “— for it’s all in some language I don’t know,” she said to herself. It was like this She puzzled over this for some time, but at last a bright thought struck her. “Why, it’s a Looking-glass book, of course! And if I hold it up to a glass, the words will all go the right way again.” “It seems very pretty,” she said when she had finished it, “but it’s rather hard to understand!” (You see she didn’t like to confess even to herself, that she couldn’t make it out at all.) “Somehow it seems to fill my head with ideas—only I don’t exactly know what they are!” Through the Looking Glass and What Alice found there Lewis Carroll, 1872. Alice expresses the sentiments felt by many conservators and restorers who have a non-scientific background but are faced with the task of learning science from standard text books. It is for this reason that the Crafts Council has drawn together a team of conservation scientists, conservators and science teachers to prepare this special teaching series for your use. The series is an elementary one, assuming no previous knowledge of science, although the texts at times use words and mention conservation procedures which you already use frequently in your work. It progresses gradually, step by step, to cover the basic science which has a direct bearing on your work. The books have been compiled to be applicable to all areas of conservation practice. This may, at first, seem unnecessary to specialist conservators, but one of the great virtues of gaining an understanding of science is the knowledge it gives you of the way the behaviour of different materials interrelates. In this way, the preoccupations of a textile conservator and a paper conservator, for example, will be seen to have much in common; less obviously a textile conservator may often find it useful to know something about the behaviour and properties of a metal thread. Many other conservators, especially in areas such as ethnography or archaeology, work with a wide range of materials and so for them the benefits of this approach are self evident.