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ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION HANDBOOK EDITED BY Thomas R. Kurfess Ph.D., P.E. CRC PR E S S Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC 1804_Disclaimer.fm Page 1 Tuesday, August 17, 2004 3:07 PM Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Robotics and automation handbook / edited by Thomas R. Kurfess. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8493-1804-1 (alk. paper) 1. Robotics--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Kurfess, Thomas R. TJ211.R5573 2000 629.8’92—dc21 2004049656 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. All rights reserved. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the personal or internal use of specific clients, may be granted by CRC Press LLC, provided that $1.50 per page photocopied is paid directly to Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 USA. The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is ISBN 0-8493-1804-1/05/$0.00+$1.50. The fee is subject to change without notice. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com © 2005 by CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-1804-1 Library of Congress Card Number 2004049656 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC Preface Robots are machines that have interested the general population throughout history. In general, they are machines or devices that operate automatically or by remote control. Clearly people have wanted to use such equipment since simple devices were developed. The word robot itself comes from Czech robota, “servitude, forced labor,” and was coined in 1923 (from dictionary.com). Since then robots have been characterized by the media as machines that look similar to humans. Robots such as “Robby the Robot” or Robot from the Lost in Space television series defined the appearance of robots to several generations. However, robots are more than machines that walk around yelling “Danger!” They are used in a variety of tasks from the very exciting, such as space exploration (e.g., the Mars Rover), to the very mundane (e.g., vacuuming your home, which is not a simple task). They are complex and useful systems that have been employed in industry for several decades. As technology advances, the capability and utility of robots have increased dramatically. Today, we have robots that assemble cars, weld, fly through hostile environments, and explore the harshest environments from the depths of the ocean, to the cold and dark environment of the Antarctic, to the hazardous depths of active volcanoes, to the farthest reaches of outer space. Robots take on tasks that people do not want to perform. Perhaps these tasks are too boring, perhaps they are too dangerous, or perhaps the robot can outperform its human counterpart. This text is targeted at the fundamentals of robot design, implementation, and application. As robots are used in a substantial number of functions, this book only scratches the surface of their applications. However, it does provide a firm basis for engineers and scientists interested in either fabrication or utilizing robotic systems. The first part of this handbook presents a number of design issues that must be considered in building and utilizing a robotic system. Both issues related to the entire robot, such as control and trajectory planning and dynamics are discussed. Critical concepts such as precision control of rotary and linear axes are also presented at they are necessary to yield optimal performance out of a robotic system. The book then continues with a number of specialized applications of robotic systems. In these applications, such as the medical arena, particular design and systems considerations are presented that are highlighted by these applications but are critical in a significant cross-section of areas. It was a pleasure to work with the authors of the various sections. They are experts in their areas, and in reviewing their material, I have improved my understanding of robotic systems. I hope that the readers will enjoy reading the text as much as I have enjoyed reading and assembling it. I anticipate that future versions of this book will incorporate more applications as well as advanced concepts in robot design and implementation. Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC The Editor Thomas R. Kurfess received his S.B., S.M., and Ph.D. degrees in mechanical engineering from M.I.T. in 1986, 1987, and 1989, respectively. He also received an S.M. degree from M.I.T. in electrical engineering and computer science in 1988. Following graduation, he joined Carnegie Mellon University where he rose to the rank of Associate Professor. In 1994 he moved to the Georgia Institute of Technology where he is currently a Professor in the George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering. He presently serves as a participating guest at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in their Precision Engineering Program. He is also a special consultant of the United Nations to the Government of Malaysia in the area of applied mechatronics and manufacturing. His research work focuses on the design and development of high precision manufacturing and metrology systems. He has chaired workshops for the National Science Foundation on the future of engineering education and served on the Committee of Visitors for NSF’s Engineering Education and Centers Division. He has had similar roles in education and technology assessment for a variety of countries as well as the U.N. His primary area of research is precision engineering. To this end he has applied advanced control theory to both measurement machines and machine tools, substantially improving their performance. During the past twelve years, Dr. Kurfess has concentrated in precision grinding, high-speed scanning coordinate measurement machines, and statistical analysis of CMM data. He is actively involved in using advanced mechatronics units in large scale applications to generate next generation high performance systems. Dr. Kurfess has a number of research projects sponsored by both industry and governmental agencies in this area. He has also given a number of workshops, sponsored by the National Science Foundation, in the areas of teaching controls and mechatronics to a variety of professors throughout the country. In 1992 he was awarded a National Science Foundation Young Investigator Award, and in 1993 he received the National Science Foundation Presidential Faculty Fellowship Award. He is also the recipient of the ASME Pi Tau Sigma Award, the SME Young Manufacturing Engineer of the Year Award, the ASME Gustus L. Larson Memorial Award and the ASME Blackall Machine Tool and Gage Award. He has received the Class of 1940 W. Howard Ector’s Outstanding Teacher Award and the Outstanding Faculty Leadership for the Development of Graduate Research Assistants Award while at Georgia Tech. He is a registered Professional Engineer, and is active in several engineering societies, including ASEE, ASME, ASPE, IEEE and SME. He is currently serving as a Technical Associate Editor of the SME Journal of Manufacturing Systems, and Associate Editor of the ASME Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. He has served as an Associate Editor of the ASME Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement and Control. He is on the Editorial Advisory Board of the International Journal of Engineering Education, and serves on the board of North American Manufacturing Research Institute of SME. Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC Contributors Mohan Bodduluri Restoration Robotics Sunnyvale, California Wayne J. Book Georgia Institute of Technology Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering Atlanta, Georgia Stephen P. Buerger Massachusetts Institute of Technology Mechanical Engineering Department North Cambridge, Massachusetts Keith W. Buffinton Bucknell University Department of Mechanical Engineering Lewisburg, Pennsylvania Francesco Bullo University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Coordinated Science Laboratory Urbana, Illinois Gregory S. Chirikjian Johns Hopkins University Department of Mechanical Engineering Baltimore, Maryland Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC Darren M. Dawson Clemson University Electrical and Computer Engineering Clemson, South Carolina Hector M. Gutierrez Florida Institute of Technology Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Melbourne, Florida Bram de Jager Technical University of Eindhoven Eindhoven, Netherlands Yasuhisa Hirata Tohoku University Department of Bioengineering and Robotics Sendai, Japan Jaydev P. Desai Drexel University MEM Department Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Jeanne Sullivan Falcon National Instruments Austin, Texas Neville Hogan Massachusetts Institute of Technology Mechanical Engineering Department North Cambridge, Massachusetts Daniel D. Frey Massachusetts Institute of Technology Mechanical Engineering Department North Cambridge, Massachusetts Kun Huang University of Illinois at Urbana-Champagne Coordinated Sciences Laboratory Urbana, Illinois Robert B. Gillespie University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan Hodge E. Jenkins, Mercer University Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department Macon, Georgia J. William Goodwine Notre Dame University Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering Department Notre Dame, Indiana Dragan Kostić Technical University of Eindhoven Eindhoven, Netherlands Kazuhiro Kosuge Tohoku University Department of Bioengineering and Robotics Sendai, Japan Kenneth A. Loparo Case Western Reserve University Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Cleveland, Ohio Lonnie J. Love Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge, Tennessee Stephen J. Ludwick Aerotech, Inc. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Yi Ma University of Illinois at Urbana-Champagne Coordinated Sciences Laboratory Urbana, Illinois Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC Siddharth P. Nagarkatti MKS Instruments, Inc. Methuen, Massachusetts Mark L. Nagurka Marquette University Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Milwaukee, Wisconsin Chris A. Raanes Accuray Incorporated Sunnyvale, California William Singhose Georgia Institute of Technology Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering Atlanta, Georgia Mark W. Spong University of Illinois at Urbana-Champagne Coordinated Sciences Laboratory Urbana, Illinois Maarten Steinbuch Technical University of Eindhoven Eindhoven, Netherlands Wesley L. Stone Valparaiso University Department of Mechanical Engineering Wanatah, Indiana Ioannis S. Vakalis Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen (IPSC) European Commission Joint Research Centre I Ispra (VA), Italy Miloš Žefran University of Illinois ECE Department Chicago, Illinois Contents 1 The History of Robotics Wesley L. Stone 2 Rigid-Body Kinematics Gregorg S. Chirikjian 3 Inverse Kinematics Bill Goodwine 4 Newton-Euler Dynamics of Robots Mark L. Nagurka 5 Lagrangian Dynamics Miloš Žefran and Francesco Bullo 6 Kane’s Method in Robotics Keith W. Buffinton 7 The Dynamics of Systems of Interacting Rigid Bodies Kenneth A. Loparo and Ioannis S. Vakalis 8 D-H Convention Jaydev P. Desai 9 Trajectory Planning for Flexible Robots William E. Singhose 10 Error Budgeting Daniel D. Frey 11 Design of Robotic End Effectors Hodge Jenkins 12 Sensors Jeanne Sullivan Falcon Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC 13 Precision Positioning of Rotary and Linear Systems Stephen Ludwick 14 Modeling and Identification for Robot Motion Control Dragan Kostić, Bram de Jager, and Maarten Steinbuch 15 Motion Control by Linear Feedback Methods Dragan Kostić, Bram de Jager, and Maarten Steinbuch 16 Force/Impedance Control for Robotic Manipulators Siddharth P. Nagarkatti and Darren M. Dawson 17 Robust and Adaptive Motion Control of Manipulators Mark W. Spong 18 Sliding Mode Control of Robotic Manipulators Hector M. Gutierrez 19 Impedance and Interaction Control Neville Hogan and Stephen P. Buerger 20 Coordinated Motion Control of Multiple Manipulators Kazuhiro Kosuge and Yasuhisa Hirata 21 Robot Simulation Lonnie J. Love 22 A Survey of Geometric Vision Kun Huang and Yi Ma 23 Haptic Interface to Virtual Environments R. Brent Gillespie 24 Flexible Robot Arms Wayne J. Book 25 Robotics in Medical Applications Chris A. Raanes and Mohan Bodduluri 26 Manufacturing Automation Hodge Jenkins Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC 1 The History of Robotics 1.1 Wesley L. Stone Western Carolina University 1.1 The History of Robotics The Influence of Mythology • The Influence of Motion Pictures • Inventions Leading to Robotics • First Use of the Word Robot • First Use of the Word Robotics • The Birth of the Industrial Robot • Robotics in Research Laboratories • Robotics in Industry • Space Exploration • Military and Law Enforcement Applications • Medical Applications • Other Applications and Frontiers of Robotics The History of Robotics The history of robotics is one that is highlighted by a fantasy world that has provided the inspiration to convert fantasy into reality. It is a history rich with cinematic creativity, scientific ingenuity, and entrepreneurial vision. Quite surprisingly, the definition of a robot is controversial, even among roboticists. At one end of the spectrum is the science fiction version of a robot, typically one of a human form — an android or humanoid — with anthropomorphic features. At the other end of the spectrum is the repetitive, efficient robot of industrial automation. In ISO 8373, the International Organization for Standardization defines a robot as “an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose manipulator with three or more axes.” The Robot Institute of America designates a robot as “a reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through various programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.” A more inspiring definition is offered by MerriamWebster, stating that a robot is “a machine that looks like a human being and performs various complex acts (as walking or talking) of a human being.” 1.1.1 The Influence of Mythology Mythology is filled with artificial beings across all cultures. According to Greek legend, after Cadmus founded the city of Thebes, he destroyed the dragon that had slain several of his companions; Cadmus then sowed the dragon teeth in the ground, from which a fierce army of armed men arose. Greek mythology also brings the story of Pygmalion, a lovesick sculptor, who carves a woman named Galatea out of ivory; after praying to Aphrodite, Pygmalion has his wish granted and his sculpture comes to life and becomes his bride. Hebrew mythology introduces the golem, a clay or stone statue, which is said to contain a scroll with religious or magic powers that animate it; the golem performs simple, repetitive tasks, but is difficult to stop. Inuit legend in Greenland tells of the Tupilaq, or Tupilak, which is a creature created from natural Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC 1-2 Robotics and Automation Handbook materials by the hands of those who practiced witchcraft; the Tupilaq is then sent to sea to destroy the enemies of the creator, but an adverse possibility existed — the Tupilaq can be turned on its creator if the enemy knows witchcraft. The homunculus, first introduced by 15th Century alchemist Paracelsus, refers to a small human form, no taller than 12 inches; originally ascribed to work associated with a golem, the homunculus became synonymous with an inner being, or the “little man” that controls the thoughts of a human. In 1818, Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley wrote Frankenstein, introducing the creature created by scientist Victor Frankenstein from various materials, including cadavers; Frankenstein’s creation is grossly misunderstood, which leads to the tragic deaths of the scientist and many of the loved ones in his life. These mythological tales, and many like them, often have a common thread: the creators of the supernatural beings often see their creations turn on them, typically with tragic results. 1.1.2 The Influence of Motion Pictures The advent of motion pictures brought to life many of these mythical creatures, as well as a seemingly endless supply of new artificial creatures. In 1926, Fritz’s Lang’s movie “Metropolis” introduced the first robot in a feature film. The 1951 film “The Day the Earth Stood Still” introduced the robot Gort and the humanoid alien Klaatu, who arrived in Washington, D.C., in their flying saucer. Robby, the Robot, first made his appearance in “Forbidden Planet” (1956), becoming one of the most influential robots in cinematic history. In 1966, the television show “Lost in Space” delivered the lovable robot B-9, who consistently saved the day, warning Will Robinson of aliens approaching. The 1968 movie “2001: A Space Odyssey” depicted a space mission gone awry, where Hal employed his artificial intelligence (AI) to wrest control of the space ship from the humans he was supposed to serve. In 1977, “Star Wars” brought to life two of the most endearing robots ever to visit the big screen — R2-D2 and C3PO. Movies and television have brought to life these robots, which have served in roles both evil and noble. Although just a small sampling, they illustrate mankind’s fascination with mechanical creatures that exhibit intelligence that rivals, and often surpasses, that of their creators. 1.1.3 Inventions Leading to Robotics The field of robotics has evolved over several millennia, without reference to the word robot until the early 20th Century. In 270 B.C., ancient Greek physicist and inventor Ctesibus of Alexandria created a water clock, called the clepsydra, or “water-thief,” as it translates. Powered by rising water, the clepsydra employed a cord attached to a float and stretched across a pulley to track time. Apparently, the contraption entertained many who watched it passing away the time, or stealing their time, thus earning its namesake. Born in Lyon, France, Joseph Jacquard (1752–1834) inherited his father’s small weaving business but eventually went bankrupt. Following this failure, he worked to restore a loom and in the process developed a strong interest in mechanizing the manufacture of silk. After a hiatus in which he served for the Republicans in the French Revolution, Jacquard returned to his experimentation and in 1801 invented a loom that used a series of punched cards to control the repetition of patterns used to weave cloths and carpets. Jacquard’s card system was later adapted by Charles Babbage in early 19th Century Britain to create an automatic calculator, the principles of which later led to the development of computers and computer programming. The inventor of the automatic rifle, Christopher Miner Spencer (1833–1922) of Manchester, Connecticut, is also credited with giving birth to the screw machine industry. In 1873, Spencer was granted a patent for the lathe that he developed, which included a camshaft and a self-advancing turret. Spencer’s turret lathe took the manufacture of screws to a higher level of sophistication by automating the process. In 1892, Seward Babbitt introduced a motorized crane that used a mechanical gripper to remove ingots from a furnace, 70 years prior to General Motors’ first industrial robot used for a similar purpose. In the 1890s Nikola Tesla — known for his discoveries in AC electric power, the radio, induction motors, and more — invented the first remote-controlled vehicle, a radio-controlled boat. Tesla was issued Patent #613.809 on November 8, 1898, for this discovery. Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC