Nội dung

��#ࡱ#�################>###�� #################� ##########� ######����####z ##{ ##| ##} ##~ ## ##� ##� ##� ##� ##� ##� ##� ##� ##� ##� ##� ##� ##� ##� ##� ##� ##������������������������������������������������������������������������������ �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������#_� ###�#�###############��####bjbj###################### ###��##b##b###X##############################   ��##########��##########��######### #########�#####�#######�###6#######6#######6#######6#######6###D###########����# ###z#######z#######z#######z###�###V###, ##z#######�l######�!##`###�%######� %######�%######�&######�-######�-######�######�f#######g#######g#######g#######g#######g#######g##$###�p##�###�s##Z### %g##y###################6#######�-######################�,##�###�-######�######�-######%g##############6#######6#######� %##############�&##�###�l######�3######�3######�3######�-######6#######� %######6#######�&######�f##############�3####################################### ###############�######�f##############�3######�3######MM##�##################################### ######################################�N######� %##�###����####��k��#�#########����####�0#######N##############�f######�l##0###� l######3N##b####t######�0#######t##4###�N####################################### ###############################�N#######t##############6#######�e##@###�######�-######�3######�-######�-######################################�-######�######�-######%g###### %g######################################�3###################################### �-######�-######�-######�l######�-######�-######�-######�##############����####����####����############����####����####����####����####�� ��####����####����####����####����####����####����####����####����####����#####t ######�-######�-######�-######�-######�-######�##############################################################�-######�-######�######�### ##�###:######### ################################################################################ ################################################################################ ################################################################################ ################################################################################ ################################################################################ #######################COURSE SYLLABUS PHOBH51 & MORBH51ENGLISH PHONETICS & PHONOLOGYWEEKTITLETIME1Lesson 1: Introduction19.01.20152Lesson 2: The Organs of Speech26.01.20153#�Lesson 3: English Consonants#Assignment 102.02.20154Lesson 4: English vowels & diphthongs09.02.20155Lesson 5: Phonological analysis16.02.2015 6#�Lesson 6: Syllable Structure#Assignment 223.02.20157Lesson 7: Adjustments in connected speech02.03.20158Lesson 8: Weak forms09.03.20159Lesson 9: Stress 16.03.201510#�Lesson 10: Intonation#Assignment 323.03.2015ENGLISH MORPHOLOGYWEEK TITLETIME11I. Introduction30.03.2015�II. Identifying Morphemes and Allomorphs#III. Free� and Bound Morphemes�12IV. Word Structure06.04.2015�V. Word Formation#VI. Derivation��VII. Compounding�## ################################################################################ ################################################################################ ########################################################################Q#U#Y# ###�#N#H# #V#�# #T#�#N#H# ###I#�#M# #T#H#A#M# #G#I#A# #T#H#�#O# #L#U#�#N##H#�#C# #P#H#�#N#:# #N#G#�# #�#M# #H#�#C# #(#B#1# #&# #B#2#)## # # # # #N#h#�#m# #t###n#g# #c#�#�#n#g# #t#�#n#h# #t#�#c#h# #c#�#c# #c#�#a# #h#�#c# #v#i#�#n# #k#h#i# #t#h#a#m# #g#i#a# #c#h#�#�#n#g# #t#r#�#n#h# ###�#o# #t#�#o# #t#r#�#c# #t#u#y#�#n# #c#i#n#g# #n#h#�# #c#�# #c###n# #c#�# #c#h#�#n#h# #x#�#c# #h#�#n# #t#r#o#n#g# ###�#n#h# #g#i#�# #k#�#t# #q#u#�# #h#�#c# #t#�#p#,# ###�#i# #h#�#c# ###�# #N#�#n#g# #s#�# #t#r#i#�#n# #k#h#a#i# #v#i#�#c# #t#�#n#h# ###i#�#m# #t#h#a#m# #g#i#a# #m#�#c# #T#h#�#o# #l#u#�#n# #(#D#i#s#c#u#s#s#i#o#n#)# #t#�# #c#�#c# #h#�#c# #k#�# #b#�#t# ###�#u# #v#�#o# #t#h#�#n#g# #0#1#.#2#0#1#5#.## # # # # #N#�#i# #d#u#n#g# #v#�# #y#�#u# #c#�#u# #c#�# #t#h#�# #n#h#�# #s#a#u#:##1#.# #C#�#c#h# #t#h#�#c# #h#i#�#n#:##-# ###�#u# #k#�# #m#�#i#,# #C#C#E# #g#�#i# #k#�# #h#o#�#c#h# #h#�#c# #k#�# #k#�#m# #l#�#u# #�# #h#�#c# #p#h#�#n# #c#�# #t#�#n#h# ###i#�#m# #t#h#�#o# #l#u#�#n#.##-# #H#V# #x#e#m# #k#�# #C#o#u#r#s#e# #S#y#l#l#a#b#u#s# #c#�#c# #h#�#c# #p#h#�#n# #t#r#o#n#g# #h#�#c# #k#�# ###�# #b#i#�#t# #r#�# #y#�#u# #c#�#u# #c#�#a# #h#�#c# #p#h#�#n# #c#�# #t#�#n#h# ###i#�#m# #t#h#�#o# #l#u#�#n#.##-# #H#V# #####n#g# #n#h#�#p# #v#�#o# #h#�#c# #p#h#�#n#,# #v#�#o# #D#i#s#c#u#s#s#i#o#n# #t#r#�#n# #M#e#n#u# #b#�#n# #t#r#�#i# #m#�#n# #h#�#n#h#,# #t#h#a#m# #g#i#a# #t#h#�#o# #l#u#�#n# #b#�#n#g# #c#�#c#h# #t#�# #t#�#o# #c#h#�# ###�# #m#�#i# #h#o#�#c# #t#r#a#o# ###�#i# #v#�# #c#h#�# ###�# #h#�#c# #v#i#�#n# #c#�#n#g# #l#�#p# ###�# #t#�#o# #s#�#n#.##-# #T#h#�#i# #h#�#n# #####n#g# #b#�#i# #t#r#o#n#g# #D#i#s#c#u#s#s#i#o#n#:# #t#r#�#�#c# #n#g#�#y# #t#h#i# #k#�#t# #t#h#�#c# #h#�#c# #p#h#�#n#.##2#.# #C#�#c#h# #t#�#n#h# ###i#�#m#:# ##-# #M#�#i# #b#�#i# #####n#g# #c#�# #n#�#i# #d#u#n#g# #c#�# #t#h#�# ###�#�#c# #t#�#n#h# #2# ###i#�#m#.# ###i#�#m# #t#�#i# ###a# #c#h#o# #t#�#n#g# #s#�# #l#�#n# #####n#g# #l#�# #1#0# ###i#�#m#.##-# #G#i#�# #t#r#�# ###i#�#m# #t#h#�#o# #l#u#�#n#:##" ###�#�#c# #t#�#n#h# #n#h#�# ###i#�#u# #k#i#�#n# #c#�#n# ###�# #h#o#�#n# #t#h#�#n#h# #h#�#c# #p#h#�#n#.##" #T#�#n#g# ###i#�#m# #t#h#�#o# #l#u#�#n# ###�#�#c# #t#�#n#h# #n#h#�# ###i#�#m# #c#�#a# #1# #b#�#i# #k#i#�#m# #t#r#a# #g#i#�#a# #k#�# #(#t#�#�#n#g# ###�#�#n#g# #1# #b#�#i# #U#n#i#t# #A#s#s#i#g#n#m#e#n#t#)#.# ##-# #C#�#c# #b#�#i# #k#i#�#m# #t#r#a# #g#i#�#a# #k#�# #g#�#m#:##" #C#�#c# #b#�#i# #U#n#i#t# #A#s#s#i#g#n#m#e#n#t##" ###i#�#m# #t#h#�#o# #l#u#�#n##-# #K#�#t# #q#u#�# #c#u#�#i# #h#�#c# #p#h#�#n#:# ####i#�#m# #T#B# #K#T# #g#i#�#a# #k#�# #x# #3#0#%# # # #+# # # ###i#�#m# #t#h#i# #c#u#�#i# #k#�# #x# #7#0#%###R#�#t# #m#o#n#g# #t#o#�#n# #t#h#�# #H#V# #l#�#u# #�# #t#h#�#c# #h#i#�#n#.## #L#E#S#S#O#N# #1#:# #I#N#T#R#O#D#U#C#T#I#O#N####P#h#o#n#e#t#i#c#s# #a#n#d# #p#h#o#n#o#l#o#g#y##T#w#o# #t#e#r#m#s# #a#r#e# #(#o#f#t#e#n# #l#o#o#s#e#l#y#)# #u#s#e#d# #t#o# #r#e#f#e#r# #t#o# #l#i#n#g#u#i#s#t#i#c# #d#i#s#c#i#p#l#i#n#e#s# #s#t#u#d#y#i#n#g# #t#h#a#t# #p#a#r#t# #o#f# #t#h#e# #l#i#n#g#u#i#s#t#i#c# #s#i#g#n# #w#h#i#c#h# #d#e# #S#a#u#s#s#u#r#e# #c#a#l#l#e#d# #t#h#e# acoustic image:�phonetics�and�phonology. The importance of sounds as vehicles of meaning is something people have been aware of for thousands of years. However, systematic studies on the speech sounds only appeared with the development of modern sciences. The term�phonetics�used in connection with such studies comes from Greek and its origins can be traced back to the verb�########################################################################### ############################################################p#h#M#n#e#i#n#,# #t#o# #s#p#e#a#k#,# #i#n# #i#t#s# #t#u#r#n# #r#e#l#a#t#e#d# #t#o#�#p#h#M#n###,# #s#o#u#n#d#.# #T#h#e# #e#n#d# #o#f# #t#h#e# #1#8#t#h# #c#e#n#t#u#r#y# #w#i#t#n#e#s#s#e#d# #a# #r#e#v#i#v#a#l# #o#f# #t#h#e# #i#n#t#e#r#e#s#t# #i#n# #t#h#e# #s#t#u#d#y#i#n#g# #o#f# #t#h#e# #s#o#u#n#d#s# #o#f# #v#a#r#i#o#u#s# #l#a#n#g#u#a#g#e#s# #a#n#d# #t#h#e# #i#n#t#r#o#d#u#c#t#i#o#n# #o#f# #t#h#e# #t#e#r#m#�#p#h#o#n#o#l#o#g#y#.# #T#h#e# #l#a#t#t#e#r# #c#o#m#e#s# #t#o# #b#e#,# #h#o#w#e#v#e#r#,# #d#i#s#t#i#n#g#u#ished from the former only more than a century later with the development of structuralism which emphasizes the essential contrastive role of classes of sounds which are labeled phonemes. The terms continue to be used, however, indiscriminately until the prestige of phonology as a distinct discipline is finally established in the first half of the 20th century.Though there is no universally accepted point of view about a clear-cut border line between the respective domains of�phonetics�and�phonology�as, indeed, we cannot talk about a phonological system ignoring the phonetic aspects it involves and, on the other hand, any phonetic approach should take into account the phonological system that is represented by any language, most linguists will agree about some fundamental distinctions between the two.PhoneticsPhonetics is the scientific study of speech. The central concerns in phonetics are the discovery of how speech sounds are produced, how they are used in spoken language, how we can record speech sounds with written symbols and how we hear and recognise different sounds.In the first of these areas, when we study the production of speech sounds we can observe what speakers do (articulatory observation) and we can try to feel what is going on inside our vocal tract (kinaesthetic observation).The second area is where phonetics overlaps with phonology: usually in phonetics we are only interested in sounds that are used in meaningful speech, and phoneticians are interested in discovering the range and variety of sounds used in this way in all the known languages of the world. This is sometimes known as linguistic phonetics.Thirdly, there has always been a need for agreed conventions for using phonetic symbols that represent speech sounds; the International Phonetic Association has played a very important role in this.Finally, the auditory aspect of speech is very important: the ear is capable of making fine discrimination between different sounds, and sometimes it is not possible to define in articulatory terms precisely what the difference is. A good example of this is in vowel classification: while it is important to know the position and shape of the tongue and lips, it is often very important to have been trained in an agreed set of standard auditory qualities that vowels can be reliably related to (other important branches of phonetics are experimental, instrumental and acoustic).PhonologyThe most basic activity in phonology is�phonemic analysis, in which the objective is to establish what the phonemes are and arrive at the�phonemic inventory�of the language. Very few phonologists have ever believed that this would be an adequate analysis of the sound system of a language: it is necessary to go beyond this. One can look at suprasegmental phonology - the study of stress, rhythm and intonation, which has led in recent years to new approaches to phonology such as metrical and�autosegmental�theory; one can go beyond the phoneme and look into the detailed characteristics of each unit in terms of distinctive features; the way in which sounds can combine in a language is studied in phonotactics and in the analysis of syllable structure. For some phonologists the most important area is the relationships between the different phonemes - how they form groups, the nature of the oppositions between them and how those oppositions may be neutralised. ################################################################################ ################################################################################ ########N#g#�# #�#m# #h#�#c# #v#�# #�#m# #v#�# #h#�#c##H#a#i# #t#h#u#�#t# #n#g#�# #n#�#y# #(#t#h#�#�#n#g# #l#�#n#g# #l#�#o#)# ###�#�#c# #d#�#n#g# ###�# #c#h#�# #c#�#c# #n#g#�#n#h# #n#g#�#n# #n#g#�# #h#�#c# #l#�# #m#�#t# #p#h#�#n# #c#�#a# #c#�#c# #d#�#u# #h#i#�#u# #n#g#�#n# #n#g#�# #m#�# #d#e# #S#a#u#s#s#u#r#e# #g#�#i# #l#�# #h#�#n#h# #�#n#h# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h#:# #n#g#�# #�#m# #h#�#c# #v#�# #�#m# #v#�# #h#�#c#.# #T#�#m# #q#u#a#n# #t#r#�#n#g# #c#�#a# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h# #n#h#�# #x#e# #c#�#a# #�# #n#g#h#)#a# #l#�# #m#�#t# #c#�#i# #g#�# ###�# #m#�#i# #n#g#�#�#i# ###�# #n#h#�#n# #t#h#�#c# #c#h#o# #h#�#n#g# #n#g#�#n# #n###m#.# #T#u#y# #n#h#i#�#n#,# #c#�#c# #n#g#h#i#�#n# #c#�#u# #c#�# #h#�# #t#h#�#n#g# #v#�# #c#�#c# #b#�#i# #p#h#�#t# #b#i#�#u# #c#�#a# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h# #c#h#�# #x#u#�#t# #h#i#�#n# #v#�#i# #s#�# #p#h#�#t# #t#r#i#�#n# #c#�#a# #k#h#o#a# #h#�#c# #h#i#�#n# ###�#i#.# #N#g#�# #�#m# #n#g#�# ###�#�#c# #s#�# #d#�#n#g# #t#r#o#n#g# #k#�#t# #n#�#i# #v#�#i# #c#�#c# #n#g#h#i#�#n# #c#�#u# #n#h#�# #v#�#y# #x#u#�#t# #p#h#�#t# #t#�# #t#i#�#n#g# #H#y# #L#�#p# #v#�# #n#g#u#�#n# #g#�#c# #c#�#a# #n#�# #c#�# #t#h#�# ###�#�#c# #t#r#u#y# #t#r#�# #l#�#i# #p#h#M#n#e#i#n# ###�#n#g# #t#�#,# ###�# #n#�#i# #c#h#u#y#�#n#,# ###�#n# #l#�#�#t# #n#�# #l#i#�#n# #q#u#a#n# ###�#n# ###i#�#n# #t#h#o#�#i#,# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h#.# #S#�# #k#�#t# #t#h#�#c# #c#�#a# #t#h#�# #k#�# #1#8# ###�# #c#h#�#n#g# #k#i#�#n# ## # m#�#t# #s#�# #h#�#i# #s#i#n#h# #c#�#a# #s#�# #q#u#a#n# #t#�#m# #t#r#o#n#g# #v#i#�#c# #h#�#c# #t#�#p# #c#�#a# #c#�#c# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h# #c#�#a# #n#g#�#n# #n#g#�# #k#h#�#c# #n#h#a#u# #v#�# #s#�# #r#a# ###�#i# #c#�#a# #�#m# #v#�# #h#�#c# #k#�#.# #S#a#u# ###�# ###�#n# ###�#�#c#,# #t#u#y# #n#h#i#�#n#,# ###�# #p#h#�#n# #b#i#�#t# #v#�#i# #c#�#u# #c#h#�# #h#�#n# #m#�#t# #t#h#�# #k#�# #s#a#u# ###�# #v#�#i# #s#�# #p#h#�#t# #t#r#i#�#n# #c#�#a# #c#�#u# #t#r#�#c# #t#r#o#n#g# ###�# #n#h#�#n# #m#�#n#h# #v#a#i# #t#r#�# #t#h#i#�#t# #y#�#u# ###�#i# #c#h#i#�#u# #c#�#a# #c#�#c# #l#�#p# #h#�#c# #c#�#a# #c#�#c# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h# #c#�# #n#h#�#n# #g#h#i# #�#m# #v#�#.# #C#�#c# ###i#�#u# #k#h#o#�#n# #t#i#�#p# #t#�#c# ###�#�#c# #s#�# #d#�#n#g#,# #t#u#y# #n#h#i#�#n#,# #m#�#t# #c#�#c#h# #b#�#a# #b#�#i# #c#h#o# ###�#n# #u#y# #t#�#n# #c#�#a# #�#m# #v#�# #h#�#c# #n#h#�# #m#�#t# #m#�#n# #h#�#c# #r#i#�#n#g# #b#i#�#t# #c#u#�#i# #c#�#n#g# #c#i#n#g# ###�#�#c# #t#h#�#n#h# #l#�#p# #v#�#o# #n#�#a# ###�#u# #c#�#a# #t#h#�# #k#�# #2#0#.##M#�#c# #d#�# #k#h#�#n#g# #c#�# ###i#�#m# #g#i#�#i# #c#h#�#p# #n#h#�#n# #q#u#a#n# ###i#�#m# #v#�# #m#�#t# ###�#�#n#g# #b#i#�#n# #g#i#�#i# #r#�# #r#�#n#g# #g#i#�#a# #c#�#c# #l#)#n#h# #v#�#c# #t#�#�#n#g# #�#n#g# #v#�# #n#g#�# #�#m# #h#�#c# #v#�# #�#m# #v#�# #h#�#c# #n#h#�#,# #t#h#�#c# #s#�#,# #c#h#�#n#g# #t#a# #k#h#�#n#g# #t#h#�# #n#�#i# #v#�# #m#�#t# #h#�# #t#h#�#n#g# #�#m# #v#�# #b#�# #q#u#a# #c#�#c# #k#h#�#a# #c#�#n#h# #n#g#�# #�#m# #n#�# #l#i#�#n# #q#u#a#n# #v#�#,# #m#�#t# #k#h#�#c#,# #b#�#t# #k#�# #�#m# #c#�#c#h# #t#i#�#p# #c#�#n# #n#�#n# ###�#a# #v#�#o# #t#�#i# #k#h#o#�#n# #c#�#c# #h#�# #t#h#�#n#g# #�#m# #v#�# ###�# ###�#�#c# ###�#i# #d#i#�#n# #b#�#i# #b#�#t# #k#�# #n#g#�#n# #n#g#�#,# #n#g#�#n# #n#g#�# #h#�#c# #n#h#�#t# #s#�# ###�#n#g# #�# #v#�# #m#�#t# #s#�# #k#h#�#c# #b#i#�#t# #c#�# #b#�#n# #g#i#�#a# #h#a#i# #n#g#�#�#i#.###N#g#�# #�#m# #h#�#c# #N#g#�# #�#m# #h#�#c# #l#�# #n#g#h#i#�#n# #c#�#u# #k#h#o#a# #h#�#c# #c#�#a# #c#�#c# #b#�#i# #p#h#�#t# #b#i#�#u#.# #C#�#c# #m#�#i# #q#u#a#n# #t#�#m# #t#r#u#n#g# #t#�#m# #t#r#o#n#g# #n#g#�# #�#m# #l#�# #n#h#�#n#g# #k#h#�#m# #p#h#�# #v#�# #c#�#c#h# #�#m# #n#�#i# ###�#�#c# #s#�#n# #x#u#�#t#,# #l#�#m# #t#h#�# #n#�#o# #c#h#�#n#g# ###�#�#c# #s#�# #d#�#n#g# #t#r#o#n#g# #n#g#�#n# #n#g#�# #n#�#i#,# #l#�#m# #t#h#�# #n#�#o# #c#h#�#n#g# #t#a# #c#�# #t#h#�# #g#h#i# #l#�#i# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h# #t#i#�#n#g# #n#�#i# #v#�#i# #c#�#c# #k#�# #h#i#�#u# #v###n# #b#�#n# #v#�# #l#�#m# #t#h#�# #n#�#o# #c#h#�#n#g# #t#a# #n#g#h#e# #v#�# #n#h#�#n# #r#a# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h# #k#h#�#c# #n#h#a#u#.# #T#r#o#n#g# #l#�#n# ###�#u# #t#i#�#n# #c#�#a# #c#�#c# #k#h#u# #v#�#c# #n#�#y#,# #k#h#i# #c#h#�#n#g# #t#a# #n#g#h#i#�#n# #c#�#u# #v#i#�#c# #s#�#n# #x#u#�#t# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h# #t#i#�#n#g# #n#�#i# #c#h#�#n#g# #t#a# #c#�# #t#h#�# #q#u#a#n# #s#�#t# #n#h#�#n#g# #g#�# #d#i#�#n# #g#i#�# #l#�#m# #(#c#�#u# #�#m# #q#u#a#n# #s#�#t#)# #v#�# #c#h#�#n#g# #t#a# #c#�# #t#h#�# #c#�# #g#�#n#g# ###�# #c#�#m# #t#h#�#y# #n#h#�#n#g# #g#�# ###a#n#g# #x#�#y# #r#a# #b#�#n# #t#r#o#n#g# #t#h#a#n#h# #q#u#�#n# #c#�#a# #c#h#�#n#g# #t#�#i# #(#q#u#a#n# #s#�#t# #k#i#n#a#e#s#t#h#e#t#i#c#)#.##K#h#u# #v#�#c# #t#h#�# #h#a#i# #l#�# #n#�#i# #m#�# #n#g#�# #�#m# #t#r#�#n#g# #v#�#i# #�#m# #v#�# #h#�#c#:# #t#h#�#�#n#g# #t#r#o#n#g# #n#g#�# #�#m# #h#�#c#,# #c#h#�#n#g# #t#�#i# #c#h#�# #q#u#a#n# #t#�#m# ###�#n# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h# ###�#�#c# #s#�# #d#�#n#g# #t#r#o#n#g# #b#�#i# #p#h#�#t# #b#i#�#u# #c#�# #�# #n#g#h#)#a#,# #v#�# #n#g#�# #�#m# #h#�#c# #q#u#a#n# #t#�#m# ###�#n# #v#i#�#c# #k#h#�#m# #p#h#�# #r#a# #n#h#i#�#u# #v#�# ###a# #d#�#n#g# #c#�#a# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h# ###�#�#c# #s#�# #d#�#n#g# #t#h#e#o# #c#�#c#h# #n#�#y# #t#r#o#n#g# #t#�#t# #c#�# #c#�#c# #n#g#�#n# #n#g#�# #t#i#�#n#g# #t#h#�# #g#i#�#i#;# #.# ###i#�#u# #n#�#y# ###�#i# #k#h#i# ###�#�#c# #g#�#i# #l#�# #n#g#�# #�#m# #h#�#c# #n#g#�#n# #n#g#�#.##T#h#�# #b#a#,# #c#�# #l#u#�#n# #l#u#�#n# #l#�# #m#�#t# #n#h#u# #c#�#u# #c#h#o# #c#�#c# #h#�#i# #n#g#h#�# ###�#n#g# #�# #c#h#o# #s#�# #d#�#n#g# #k#�# #h#i#�#u# #n#g#�# #�#m# #m#�# ###�#i# #d#i#�#n# #c#h#o# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h# #t#i#�#n#g# #n#�#i#;# #H#i#�#p# #h#�#i# #p#h#i#�#n# #�#m# #q#u#�#c# #t#�# ###�# ###�#n#g# #m#�#t# #v#a#i# #t#r#�# #r#�#t# #q#u#a#n# #t#r#�#n#g# #t#r#o#n#g# #v#i#�#c# #n#�#y#.# #C#u#�#i# #c#�#n#g#,# #c#�#c# #k#h#�#a# #c#�#n#h# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h# #c#�#a# #l#�#i# #n#�#i# #l#�# #r#�#t# #q#u#a#n# #t#r#�#n#g#:# #t#a#i# #l#�# #c#�# #k#h#�# #n###n#g# #l#�#m# #p#h#�#n# #b#i#�#t# ###�#i# #x#�# #t#�#t# ###�#p# #g#i#�#a# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h# #k#h#�#c# #n#h#a#u#,# #v#�# ###�#i# #k#h#i# #n#�# #k#h#�#n#g# #t#h#�# ###�#n#h# #n#g#h#)#a# #v#�# #c#�#u# #�#m# #c#h#�#n#h# #x#�#c# #n#h#�#n#g# #g#�# #l#�# #s#�# #k#h#�#c# #b#i#�#t#.# #M#�#t# #v#�# #d#�# ###i#�#n# #h#�#n#h# #c#�#a# #v#i#�#c# #n#�#y# #l#�# #t#r#o#n#g# #p#h#�#n# #l#o#�#i# #n#g#u#y#�#n# #�#m#:# #t#r#o#n#g# #k#h#i# ###i#�#u# #q#u#a#n# #t#r#�#n#g# #l#�# #p#h#�#i# #b#i#�#t# #v#�# #t#r#�# #v#�# #h#�#n#h# #d#�#n#g# #c#�#a# #l#�#�#i# #v#�# #m#�#i#,# #n#�# #t#h#�#�#n#g# #l#�# #r#�#t# #q#u#a#n# #t#r#�#n#g# ###�# #c#�# ###�#�#c# ###�#o# #t#�#o# #t#r#o#n#g# #m#�#t# #t#�#p# #h#�#p# #t#h#�#n#g# #n#h#�#t# #v#�# #p#h#�#m# #c#h#�#t# #t#h#a#n#h# #t#i#�#u# #c#h#u#�#n# #m#�# #n#g#u#y#�#n# #�#m# #c#�# #t#h#�# #l#i#�#n# #q#u#a#n# ###�#n#g# #t#i#n# #c#�#y# ###�# #(#n#g#�#n#h# #q#u#a#n# #t#r#�#n#g# #k#h#�#c# #v#�# #n#g#�# #�#m# #l#�# #t#h#�# #n#g#h#i#�#m#,# #n#h#�#c# #c#�# #v#�# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h#)#.##P#h#�#t# #�#m# #h#�#c##C#�#c# #h#o#�#t# ###�#n#g# #c#�# #b#�#n# #n#h#�#t# #t#r#o#n#g# #�#m# #v#�# #h#�#c# #l#�# #p#h#�#n# #t#�#c#h# #n#g#�# #�#m#,# #t#r#o#n#g# ###�# #m#�#c# #t#i#�#u# #l#�# ###�# #t#h#i#�#t# #l#�#p# #n#h#�#n#g# #g#�# #c#�#c# #�#m# #v#�# #l#�# #v#�# ###�#n# #h#�#n#g# #t#�#n# #k#h#o# #�#m# #v#�# #c#�#a# #n#g#�#n# #n#g#�#.# #R#�#t# #�#t# #n#h#�# #�#m# #v#�# #h#�#c# ###�# #t#�#n#g# #t#i#n# #r#�#n#g# ###�#y# #s#�# #l#�# #m#�#t# #p#h#�#n# #t#�#c#h# ###�#y# ###�# #c#�#a# #h#�# #t#h#�#n#g# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h# #c#�#a# #m#�#t# #n#g#�#n# #n#g#�#:# #n#�# #l#�# #c#�#n# #t#h#i#�#t# ###�# #v#�#�#t# #q#u#a# ###�#�#c# ###i#�#u# #n#�#y#.# #N#g#�#�#i# #t#a# #c#�# #t#h#�# #n#h#�#n# #v#�#o# #s#u#p#r#a#s#e#g#m#e#n#t#a#l# #�#m# #v#�# #h#�#c# #-# #n#g#h#i#�#n# #c#�#u# #c###n#g# #t#h#�#n#g#,# #n#h#�#p# ###i#�#u# #v#�# #n#g#�# ###i#�#u#,# #m#�# ###�# #d#�#n# #t#r#o#n#g# #n#h#�#n#g# #n###m# #g#�#n# ###�#y# #v#�#i# #c#�#c# #p#h#�#�#n#g# #p#h#�#p# #m#�#i# ###�# #�#m# #v#�# #h#�#c# #n#h#�# #l#�# #t#h#u#y#�#t# #m#e#t#r#i#c#a#l# #v#�# ###o#�#n# #t#�# ###�#n#g#;# #a#i# #c#�# #t#h#�# #v#�#�#t# #q#u#a# ###�#�#c# #n#h#�#n#g# #�#m# #v#�# #v#�# #n#h#�#n# #v#�#o# #c#�#c# ###�#c# #t#�#n#h# #c#h#i# #t#i#�#t# #c#�#a# #t#�#n#g# ###�#n# #v#�# #v#�# #t#�#n#h# #n###n#g# ###�#c# #b#i#�#t#;# #c#�#c#h# #t#h#�#c# #m#�# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h# #c#�# #t#h#�# #k#�#t# #h#�#p# #t#r#o#n#g# #m#�#t# #n#g#�#n# #n#g#�# ###�#�#c# #n#g#h#i#�#n# #c#�#u# #t#r#o#n#g# #k#�#t# #�#m# #h#�#c# #v#�# #t#r#o#n#g# #v#i#�#c# #p#h#�#n# #t#�#c#h# #c#�#c# #c#�#u# #t#r#�#c# #�#m# #t#i#�#t#.# ###�#i# #v#�#i# #m#�#t# #s#�# #�#m# #v#�# #h#�#c# #c#�#c# #l#)#n#h# #v#�#c# #q#u#a#n# #t#r#�#n#g# #n#h#�#t# #l#�# #m#�#i# #q#u#a#n# #h#�# #g#i#�#a# #c#�#c# #�#m# #v#�# #k#h#�#c# #n#h#a#u# #-# #l#�#m# #t#h#�# #n#�#o# #c#h#�#n#g# #h#�#n#h# #t#h#�#n#h# #c#�#c# #n#h#�#m#,# #b#�#n# #c#h#�#t# #c#�#a# #s#�# ###�#i# #l#�#p# #g#i#�#a# #h#�# #v#�# #l#�#m# #t#h#�# #n#�#o# #n#h#�#n#g# #n#g#�#�#i# ###�#i# #l#�#p# #c#�# #t#h#�# ###�#�#c# #v#�# #h#i#�#u# #h#�#a#.##########L#E#S#S#O#N# #2#:# #T#H#E# #O#R#G#A#N#S# #O#F# #S#P#E#E#C#H#####G#l#o#s#s#a#r#y#:###I#n# #a#d#d#i#t#i#o#n# #t#o# #t#h#e#i#r# #n#o#r#m#a#l# #n#a#m#e#s#,# #m#a#n#y# #o#f# #t#h#e# #p#a#r#t#s# #o#f# #t#h#e# #o#r#g#a#n#s# #o#f# #s#p#e#e#c#h# #h#a#v#e# #f#a#n#c#y# #n#a#m#e#s# #d#e#r#i#v#e#d# #f#r#o#m# #L#a#t#i#n# #a#n#d# #G#r#e#e#k#.# #T#h#e# #a#d#j#e#c#t#i#v#e#s# #w#e# #u#s#e# #t#o# #d#e#s#c#r#i#b#e# #s#o#u#n#d#s# #m#a#d#e# #w#i#t#h# #e#a#c#h# #p#a#r#t# #a#r#e# #u#s#u#a#l#l#y# #b#a#s#e#d# #o#n# #t#h#e# #L#a#t#i#n#/#G#r#e#e#k# #n#a#m#e#.###N#g#o#�#i# #c#�#i# #t#�#n# #b#�#n#h# #t#h#�#�#n#g# #c#�#a# #h#�#,# #n#h#i#�#u# #n#g#�#�#i# #t#r#o#n#g# #s#�# #c#�#c# #b#�# #p#h#�#n# #c#�#a# #c#�# #q#u#a#n# #n#g#�#n# #l#u#�#n# #c#�# #n#h#�#n#g# #c#�#i# #t#�#n# #�#a# #t#h#�#c#h# #b#�#t# #n#g#u#�#n# #t#�# #t#i#�#n#g# #L#a#t#i#n# #v#�# #t#i#�#n#g# #H#y# #L#�#p#.# #C#�#c# #t#�#n#h# #t#�# #c#h#�#n#g# #t#�#i# #s#�# #d#�#n#g# ###�# #m#�# #t#�# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h# ###�#�#c# #t#h#�#c# #h#i#�#n# #t#�#n#g# #p#h#�#n# #t#h#�#�#n#g# ###�#�#c# #d#�#a# #t#r#�#n# #t#�#n# #L#a#t#i#n# #/# #H#y# #L#�#p#.####### #I#N#C#L#U#D#E#P#I#C#T#U#R#E# #"#h#t#t#p#:#/#/#w#w#w#.#c#c#e#1#.#u#d#n#.#v#n#/#S#O#A#N#T#H#A#O#/#R#T#E#/ #m#y#_#d#o#c#u#m#e#n#t#s#/#m#y#_#f#i#l#e#s#/#p#m#s#2#.#1#.#J#P#G#"# #\#*# #M#E#R#G#E#F#O#R#M#A#T#I#N#E#T# ########I#n# #p#h#o#n#e#t#i#c#s#,# #t#h#e# #t#e#r#m#s# #v#e#l#u#m#,# #p#h#a#r#y#n#x#,# #l#a#r#y#n#x#,# #a#n#d# #d#o#r#s#u#m# #a#r#e# #u#s#e#d# #a#s# #o#ften or more often than the simpler names.Alveolar ridgea short distance behind the upper teeth is a change in the angle of the roof of the mouth. (In some people it's quite abrupt, in others very slight.) This is the alveolar ridge. Sounds which involve the area between the upper teeth and this ridge are called alveolars.(Hard) palatethe hard portion of the roof of the mouth. The term "palate" by itself usually refers to the hard palate. ###############################################################T#r#o#n#g# #n#g#�# #�#m#,# #c#�#c# #t#�# #n#g#�# #c#h#�# #m#�#n#g# #k#h#�#u# #c#�#i#,# #h#�#u# #h#�#n#g#,# #t#h#a#n#h# #q#u#�#n#,# #v#�# #m#�#t# #l#�#n#g# ###�#�#c# #s#�# #d#�#n#g# #t#h#�#�#n#g# #x#u#y#�#n# #h#o#�#c# #t#h#�#�#n#g# #x#u#y#�#n# #h#�#n# #s#o# #v#�#i# #n#h#�#n#g# #c#�#i# #t#�#n# ###�#n# #g#i#�#n# #h#�#n#.# #s#�#�#n# #n#�#i# #p#h#�# #n#a#n#g##m#�#t# #k#h#o#�#n#g# #c#�#c#h# #n#g#�#n# #p#h#�#a# #s#a#u# #r###n#g# #h#�#m# #t#r#�#n# #l#�# #m#�#t# #s#�# #t#h#a#y# ###�#i# #t#r#o#n#g# #c#�#c# #g#�#c# #c#�#a# #v#�#m# #m#i#�#n#g#.# #(#�# #m#�#t# #s#�# #n#g#�#�#i# #n#�# #k#h#�# ###�#t# #n#g#�#t#,# #�# #n#h#�#n#g# #n#g#�#�#i# #k#h#�#c# #r#�#t# #n#h#�#)#.# ###�#y# #l#�# #n#h#�#n#g# #s#�#�#n# #n#�#i# #p#h#�# #n#a#n#g#.# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h# ###�# #l#i#�#n# #q#u#a#n# ###�#n# #k#h#u# #v#�#c# #g#i#�#a# #r###n#g# #h#�#m# #t#r#�#n# #v#�# #s#�#�#n# #n#�#i# #n#�#y# ###�#�#c# #g#�#i# #l#�# #a#l#v#e#o#l#a#r#s#.##(#H#a#r#d#)# #v#�#m# #m#i#�#n#g# #p#h#�#n# #c#�#n#g# #c#�#a# #v#�#m# #m#i#�#n#g#.# #T#h#u#�#t# #n#g#�# #"#k#h#�#u# #v#�#"# #c#�#a# #c#h#�#n#h# #n#�# #t#h#�#�#n#g# ###�# #c#�#p# ###�#n# #c#�#c# #v#�#m# #m#i#�#n#g# #c#�#n#g#.######## #I#N#C#L#U#D#E#P#I#C#T#U#R#E# #"#h#t#t#p#:#/#/#w#w#w#.#c#c#e#1#.#u#d#n#.#v#n#/#S#O#A#N#T#H#A#O#/#R#T#E#/ #m#y#_#d#o#c#u#m#e#n#t#s#/#m#y#_#f#i#l#e#s#/#p#m#s#2#.#2#.#J#P#G#"# #\#*# #M#E#R#G#E#F#O#R#M#A#T#I#N#E#T# ########S#o#f#t# #p#a#l#a#t#e#/#v#e#l#u#m# #t#h#e# #s#o#f#t# #p#o#r#t#i#o#n# #o#f# #t#h#e# #r#o#o#f# #o#f# #t#h#e# #m#o#u#t#h#,# #l#y#i#n#g# #b#e#h#i#n#d# #t#h#e# #h#a#r#d# #p#a#l#a#t#e#.# #T#h#e# #t#o#n#g#u#e# #h#i#t#s# #t#h#e# #v#e#l#u#m# #i#n# #t#h#e# #s#o#u#n#d#s# #/#k#/#,# #/#g#/#,# #a#n#d# #/#K#/#.# #T#h#e# #v#e#l#u#m# #c#a#n# #a#l#s#o# #m#o#v#e#:# #i#f# #i#t# #l#o#w#e#r#s#,# #i#t# #c#r#e#a#t#e#s# #a#n# #o#p#e#n#i#n#g# #t#h#a#t# #a#l#l#o#w#s# #a#i#r# #t#o# #f#l#o#w# #o#u#t# #t#h#r#o#u#g#h# #t#h#e# #n#o#s#e#;# #i#f# #i#t# #s#t#a#y#s# #r#a#i#s#e#d#,# #t#h#e# #o#p#e#n#i#n#g# #i#s# #b#l#o#c#k#e#d#,# #a#n#d# #n#o# #a#i#r# #c#a#n# #f#l#o#w# #t#h#r#o#u#g#h# #t#h#e# #n#o#s#e#.####Uvulathe small, dangly thing at the back of the soft palate. The uvula vibrates during the r sound in many French dialects.Pharynxthe cavity between the root of the tongue and the walls of the upper throat.Tongue bladethe flat surface of the tongue just behind the tip.Tongue body/dorsumthe main part of the tongue, lying below the hard and soft palate. The body, specifically the back part of the body (hence "dorsum", Latin for "back"), moves to make vowels and many consonants.Tongue rootthe lowest part of the tongue in the throatEpiglottisthe fold of tissue below the root of the tongue. The epiglottis helps cover the larynx during swallowing, making sure (usually!) that food goes into the stomach and not the lungs. A few languages use the epiglottis in making sounds. English is fortunately not one of them. Vocal folds/vocal cordsfolds of tissue stretched across the airway to the lungs. They can vibrate against each other, providing much of the sound during speech. Glottisthe opening between the vocal cords. During a glottal stop, the vocal cords are held#together and there is no opening between them.Larynxthe structure that holds and manipulates the vocal cords. The "Adam's apple" in males is the bump formed by the front part of the larynx.Lungsthe biological function of the lungs is to absorb oxygen from air breathed in and to excrete carbon dioxide into the air breathed out. From the speech point of view, their major function is to provide the driving force that compresses the air we use for generating speech sounds. They are similar to large sponges, and their size and shape are determined by the rib cage that surrounds them, so that when the ribs are pressed down the lungs are compressed and when the ribs are lifted the lungs expand and fill with air. Although they hold a considerable amount of air (normally several litres, though this differs greatly between individuals) we use only a small proportion of their capacity when speaking - we would find it very tiring if we had to fill and empty the lungs as we spoke, and in fact it is impossible for us to empty our lungs completely.##Oral cavitythe part of the mouth behind the teeth and gums that is bounded above by the hard and soft palates and below by the tongue and the mucous membrane connecting it with the inner part of the mandible.Nasal cavitythe cavity on either side of the nasal septum, extending from the nose to the pharynx, and lying between the floor of the cranium and the roof of the mouth.#Soft pala######################t#e# #/# #c#h#�# #m#�#n#g# #k#h#�#u# #c#�#i##p#h#�#n# #m#�#m# #c#�#a# #v#�#m# #m#i#�#n#g#,# #n#�#m# #p#h#�#a# #s#a#u# #v#�#m# #m#i#�#n#g# #c#�#n#g#.# #L#�#�#i# #c#h#�#m# #c#h#�# #m#�#n#g# #k#h#�#u# #c#�#i# #t#r#o#n#g# #c#�#c# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h# #/# #k# #/#,# #/# #g# #/# #v#�# #/# #n# #/#.# #C#�#c# #c#h#�# #m#�#n#g# #k#h#�#u# #c#�#i# #c#i#n#g# #c#�# #t#h#�# #d#i# #c#h#u#y#�#n#:# #n#�#u# #n#�# #l#�#m# #g#i#�#m#,# #n#�# #t#�#o# #r#a# #m#�#t# #k#h#e# #h#�# #c#h#o# #p#h#�#p# #k#h#�#n#g# #k#h#�# #t#h#o#�#t# #r#a# #n#g#o#�#i# #q#u#a# #l#�# #m#i#i#;# #n#�#u# #n#�# #v#�#n# #l#�#n# #l#�#n#,# #v#i#�#c# #m#�# #c#�#a# #b#�# #k#h#�#a#,# #v#�# #k#h#�#n#g# #k#h#�# #c#�# #t#h#�# #l#�#u# #t#h#�#n#g# #q#u#a# #m#i#i#.###L#�#�#i# #g#�##b#�#i#,# ###i#�#u# #d#a#n#g#l#y# #n#h#�# #�# #m#�#t# #s#a#u# #c#�#a# #v#�#m# #m#i#�#n#g#.# #C#�#c# #l#�#�#i# #g#�# #r#u#n#g# #t#r#o#n#g# #�#m# #r# #t#r#o#n#g# #n#h#i#�#u# #p#h#�#�#n#g# #n#g#�# #t#i#�#n#g# #P#h#�#p#.###Y#�#t# #h#�#u##k#h#o#a#n#g# #g#i#�#a# #g#�#c# #c#�#a# #l#�#�#i# #v#�# #c#�#c# #b#�#c# #t#�#�#n#g# #c#�#a# #h#�#n#g# #p#h#�#a# #t#r#�#n#.### #L#�#�#i# #T#o#n#g#u#e##c#�#c# #b#�# #m#�#t# #p#h#�#n#g# #c#�#a# #l#�#�#i# #c#h#�# ###�#n#g# #s#a#u# ###�#u#.###C#�# #t#h#�# #T#o#n#g#u#e# #/# #d#o#r#s#u#m##p#h#�#n# #c#h#�#n#h# #c#�#a# #l#�#�#i#,# #n#�#m# #b#�#n# #d#�#�#i# #n#h#�#n#g# #v#�#m# #m#i#�#n#g# #c#�#n#g# #v#�# #m#�#m#.# #C#�#c# #c#�# #t#h#�#,# ###�#c# #b#i#�#t# #l#�# #p#h#�#n# #s#a#u# #c#�#a# #c#�# #t#h#�# #(#d#o# ###�# #"#d#o#r#s#u#m#"#,# #t#i#�#n#g# #L#a#t#i#n# #"#t#r#�# #l#�#i#"#)#,# #d#i# #c#h#u#y#�#n# ###�# #l#�#m# #c#h#o# #c#�#c# #n#g#u#y#�#n# #�#m# #v#�# #p#h#�# #�#m# #n#h#i#�#u#.##G#�#c# #l#�#�#i##p#h#�#n# #t#h#�#p# #n#h#�#t# #c#�#a# #l#�#�#i# #t#r#o#n#g# #c#�# #h#�#n#g###T#i#�#u# #t#h#i#�#t# #g#�#p# #c#�#a# #m#�# #d#�#�#i# #g#�#c# #c#�#a# #l#�#�#i#.# #C#�#c# #n#�#p# #t#h#a#n#h# #q#u#�#n# #g#i#�#p# #c#h#e# #t#h#a#n#h# #q#u#�#n# #t#r#o#n#g# #q#u#�# #t#r#�#n#h# #n#u#�#t#,# #l#�#m# #c#h#o# #c#h#�#c# #c#h#�#n# #(#t#h#�#�#n#g#!#)# #T#h#�#c# ###n# #m#�# ###i# #v#�#o# #d#�# #d#�#y# #v#�# #k#h#�#n#g# #p#h#�#i#.# #M#�#t# #v#�#i# #n#g#�#n# #n#g#�# #s#�# #d#�#n#g# #t#r#o#n#g# #n#�#p# #t#h#a#n#h# #q#u#�#n# #l#�#m# #c#h#o# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h#.# #T#i#�#n#g# #A#n#h# #l#�# #m#a#y# #m#�#n# #k#h#�#n#g# #a#i# #t#r#o#n#g# #s#�# #h#�#.###N#�#p# #g#�#p# #V#o#c#a#l# #/# #d#�#y# #t#h#a#n#h##n#�#p# #m#�# #t#r#�#i# #d#�#i# #t#r#�#n# #c#�#c# ###�#�#n#g# #h#�#n#g# #k#h#�#n#g# #v#�#o# #p#h#�#i#.# #H#�# #c#�# #t#h#�# #r#u#n#g# ###�#n#g# #v#�#i# #n#h#a#u#,# #c#u#n#g# #c#�#p# #n#h#i#�#u# #c#�#a# #�#m# #t#h#a#n#h# #t#r#o#n#g# #b#�#i# #p#h#�#t# #b#i#�#u#.###C#�#a# #h#�#u##v#i#�#c# #m#�# #g#i#�#a# #c#�#c# #d#�#y# #t#h#a#n#h# #�#m#.# #T#r#o#n#g# #m#�#t# #d#�#n#g# #t#h#a#n#h# #h#�#u#,# #c#�#c# #d#�#y# #t#h#a#n#h# #�#m# ###�#�#c# #t#�# #c#h#�#c##v#�#i# #n#h#a#u# #v#�# #k#h#�#n#g# #c#�# #m#�# #g#i#�#a# #c#h#�#n#g#.###T#h#a#n#h# #q#u#�#n##c#�#c# #c#�#u# #t#r#�#c# #c#h#�#a# #v#�# #t#h#a#o# #t#�#n#g# #c#�#c# #d#�#y# #t#h#a#n#h# #�#m#.# #N#h#�#n#g# #"#q#u#�# #t#�#o# #c#�#a# #A#d#a#m#"# #�# #n#a#m# #g#i#�#i# #l#�# #n#h#�#n#g# #v#�#t# #s#�#n#g# ###�#�#c# #h#�#n#h# #t#h#�#n#h# #b#�#i# #c#�#c# #p#h#�#n# #p#h#�#a# #t#r#�#�#c# #c#�#a# #t#h#a#n#h# #q#u#�#n#.###P#h#�#i##c#�#c# #c#h#�#c# #n###n#g# #s#i#n#h# #h#�#c# #c#�#a# #p#h#�#i# #l#�# ###�# #h#�#p# #t#h#�# #o#x#y# #t#�# #k#h#�#n#g# #k#h#�# #h#�#t# #v#�#o# #v#�# #b#�#i# #t#i#�#t# #c#a#r#b#o#n# #d#i#o#x#i#d#e# #v#�#o# #k#h#�#n#g# #k#h#�# #t#h#�# #r#a#.# #T#�# #q#u#a#n# ###i#�#m# #n#�#i# #t#r#�#n#,# #c#h#�#c# #n###n#g# #c#h#�#n#h# #c#�#a# #h#�# #l#�# #c#u#n#g# #c#�#p# #c#h#o# #l#�#c# #l#�#�#n#g# #l#�#i# #x#e# #m#�# #n#�#n# #k#h#�#n#g# #k#h#�# #c#h#�#n#g# #t#a# #s#�# #d#�#n#g# ###�# #t#�#o# #r#a# #�#m# #n#�#i#.# #C#h#�#n#g# #t#�#�#n#g# #t#�# #n#h#�# #b#�#t# #b#i#�#n# #l#�#n#,# #v#�# #k#�#c#h# #t#h#�#�#c# #v#�# #h#�#n#h# #d#�#n#g# #c#�#a# #c#h#�#n#g# ###�#�#c# #q#u#y#�#t# ###�#n#h# #b#�#i# #k#h#u#n#g# #x#�#�#n#g# #s#�#�#n# #b#a#o# #q#u#a#n#h# #h#�#,# ###�# #k#h#i# #c#�#c# #x#�#�#n#g# #s#�#�#n# ###�#�#c# #�#p# #x#u#�#n#g# #p#h#�#i# ###�#�#c# #n#�#n# #v#�# #k#h#i# #c#�#c# #x#�#�#n#g# #s#�#�#n# ###�#�#c# #n#�#n#g# #l#�#n# #p#h#�#i# #m#�# #r#�#n#g# #v#�# ###�#y# #k#h#�#n#g# #k#h#�#.# #M#�#c# #d#�# #h#�# #n#�#m# #g#i#�# #m#�#t# #s#�# #l#�#�#n#g# ###�#n#g# #k#�# #c#�#a# #k#h#�#n#g# #k#h#�# #(#t#h#�#�#n#g# #l#�# #v#�#i# #l#�#t#,# #m#�#c# #d#�# ###i#�#u# #n#�#y# #k#h#�#c# #n#h#a#u# #r#�#t# #n#h#i#�#u# #g#i#�#a# #c#�#c# #c#�# #n#h#�#n#)#,# #c#h#�#n#g# #t#�#i# #c#h#�# #s#�# #d#�#n#g# #m#�#t# #t#�# #l#�# #n#h#�# #t#r#o#n#g# #k#h#�# #n###n#g# #c#�#a# #h#�# #k#h#i# #n#�#i# #-# #c#h#�#n#g# #t#a# #s#�# #t#h#�#y# #n#�# #r#�#t# #m#�#t# #m#�#i# #n#�#u# #c#h#�#n#g# #t#�#i# #p#h#�#i# ###i#�#n# #v#�#o# #v#�# #l#�#m# #s#�#c#h# #p#h#�#i# #n#h#�# #c#h#�#n#g# #t#�#i# ###�# #n#�#i# #c#h#u#y#�#n# #,# #v#�# #t#r#o#n#g# #t#h#�#c# #t#�# #n#�# #l#�# #k#h#�#n#g# #t#h#�# #c#h#o# #c#h#�#n#g# #t#�#i# ###�# #c#�# #s#�#n# #p#h#�#m# #n#�#o# #c#�#a# #c#h#�#n#g# #t#�#i# #h#o#�#n# #t#o#�#n# #p#h#�#i#.###K#h#o#a#n#g# #m#i#�#n#g##m#�#t# #p#h#�#n# #c#�#a# #m#i#�#n#g# #p#h#�#a# #s#a#u# #r###n#g# #v#�# #n#�#�#u# #r###n#g# #l#�# #b#�# #c#h#�#n# #t#r#�#n# #b#�#i# #k#h#�#u# #v#�# #c#�#n#g# #v#�# #m#�#m# #v#�# #b#�#n# #d#�#�#i# #c#�#a# #l#�#�#i# #v#�# #m#�#n#g# #n#h#�#y# #k#�#t# #n#�#i# #n#�# #v#�#i# #p#h#�#n# #b#�#n# #t#r#o#n#g# #c#�#a# #h#�#m# #d#�#�#i#.####K#h#o#a#n#g# #m#i#i##k#h#o#a#n#g# #�# #h#a#i# #b#�#n# #c#�#a# #v#�#c#h# #n#g###n# #m#i#i#,# #k#�#o# #d#�#i# #t#�# #m#i#i# ###�#n# #c#�# #h#�#n#g#,# #v#�# #n#�#m# #g#i#�#a# #s#�#n# #c#�#a# #h#�#p# #s#�# #v#�# #v#�#m# #m#i#�#n#g#.####### ##L#E#S#S#O#N# #3#:# ENGLISH CONSONANTS##Glossary:���� Producing a consonant involves making the vocal tract narrower at some location than it usually is. We call this narrowing a constriction. Which consonant you're pronouncing depends on where in the vocal tract the constriction is and how narrow it is. It also depends on a few other things, such as whether the vocal folds are vibrating and whether air is flowing through the nose.We classify consonants along three major dimensions:place of articulationmanner of articulationvoicingFor example, for the sound�d:Place of articulation = alveolar. (The narrowing of the vocal tract involves the tongue tip and the alveolar ridge.)Manner of articulation = oral stop. (The narrowing is complete -- the tongue is completely blocking off airflow through the mouth. There is also no airflow through the nose.)Voicing = voiced. (The vocal folds are vibrating.)Places of articulation##The place of articulation (or POA) of a consonant specifies where in the vocal tract the narrowing occurs. From front to back, the POAs that English uses are: Bilabial�##���� In a bilabial consonant, the lower and upper lips approach or touch each other. English�p,�b, and�m�are bilabial stops.���� The diagram to the right shows the state of the vocal tract during a typical�p�or�b. (An�m�would look the same, but with the velum lowered to let out through the nasal passages.)���� The sound�w�involves two constrictions of the vocal tract made simultaneously. One of them is lip rounding, which you can think of as a bilabial approximant.Labiodental�##���� In a labiodental consonant, the lower lip approaches or touches the upper teeth. English�f�and�v�are bilabial fricatives.����� The diagram to the right shows the state of the vocal tract during a typical�f�or�v.�#Dental�##���� In a dental consonant, the tip or blade of the tongue approaches or touches the upper teeth. English�######################################################################## ############################################################�#�#a#n#d#�#�#�#a#r# e# #d#e#n#t#a#l# #f#r#i#c#a#t#i#v#e#s#.# #T#h#e#r#e# #a#r#e# #a#c#t#u#a#l#l#y# #a# #c#o#u#p#l#e# #o#f# #d#i#f#f#e#r#e#n#t# #w#a#y#s# #o#f# #f#o#r#m#i#n#g# #t#h#e#s#e# #s#o#u#n#d#s#:##T#h#e# #t#o#n#g#u#e# #t#i#p# #c#a#n# #a#p#p#r#o#a#c#h# #t#h#e# #b#a#c#k# #o#f# #t#h#e# #u#p#p#e#r# #t#e#e#t#h#,# #b#u#t# #n#o#t# #p#r#e#s#s# #a#g#a#i#n#s#t# #t#h#e#m# #s#o# #h#a#r#d# #t#h#a#t# #t#h#e# #a#i#r#f#l#o#w# #i#s# #c#o#m#p#l#e#t#e#l#y# #b#l#o#c#k#e#d#.##T#h#e# #b#l#a#d#e# #o#f# #t#h#e# #t#o#n#g#u#e# #c#a#n# #t#o#u#c#h# #t#h#e# #b#o#t#t#o#m# #o#f# #t#h#e# #u#p#p#e#r# #t#e#e#t#h#,# #w#i#t#h# #t#h#e# #t#o#n#g#u#e# #t#i#p# #p#r#o#t#r#u#d#i#n#g# #b#e#t#w#e#e#n# #t#h#e# #t#e#e#t#h# #-#-# #s#t#i#l#l# #l#e#a#v#i#n#g# #e#n#o#u#g#h# #s#p#a#c#e# #f#o#r# #a# #t#u#r#b#u#l#e#n#t# #a#i#r#-#s#t#r#e#a#m# #t#o# #e#s#c#a#p#e#.# #T#h#i#s# #k#i#n#d# #o#f#�#�#�#a#n#d#�#�#�#i#s# #o#f#t#e#n# #c#a#l#l#e#d#�#i#n#t#e#r#d#e#n#t#a#l#.##�#�#�#�# #T#h#e# #d#i#a#g#r#a#m# #t#o# #t#h#e# #r#i#g#h#t# #s#h#o#w#s# #a# #t#y#p#i#c#a#l# #i#n#t#e#r#d#e#n#t#a#l#�#�#�#o#r#�#�#.####A#l#v#e#o#l#a#r#�######�#�#�#�# #I#n# #a#n# #a#l#v#e#o#l#a#r# #c#o#n#s#o#n#a#n#t#,# #t#h#e# #t#o#n#g#u#e# #t#i#p# #(#o#r# #l#e#s#s# #o#f#t#e#n# #t#h#e# #t#o#n#g#u#e# #b#l#a#d#e#)# #a#p#p#r#o#a#c#h#e#s# #o#r# #t#o#u#c#h#e#s# #t#h#e# #a#l#v#e#o#l#a#r# #r#i#d#g#e#,# #t#h#e# #r#i#d#g#e# #i#m#m#e#d#i#a#t#e#l#y# #b#e#h#i#n#d# #t#h#e# #u#p#p#e#r# #t#e#e#t#h#.# #T#h#e# #E#n#g#l#i#s#h# #s#t#o#p#s#�#t#,#�#d#,# #a#n#d#�#n#�#a#r#e# #f#o#r#m#e#d# #b#y# #c#o#m#p#l#e#t#e#l#y# #b#locking the airflow at this place of articulation. The fricatives�s�and�zare also at this place of articulation, as is the lateral approximant�l.���� The diagram to the right shows the state of the vocal tract during plosive�t�or�d.#Postalveolar�# #���� In a postalveolar consonant, the constriction is made immediately behind the alveolar ridge. The constriction can be made with either the tip or the blade of the tongue. The English fricatives�###############################################################+"a#n# d#�#�#�#a#r#e# #m#a#d#e# #a#t# #t#h#i#s# #P#O#A#,# #a#s# #a#r#e# #t#h#e# #c#o#r#r#e#s#p#o#n#d#i#n#g# #a#f#f#r#i#c#a#t#e#s#�#t#+"a#n#d#�#d#�#.##�#�#�#�# #T#h#e# #d#i#a#g#r#a#m# #t#o# #t#h#e# #r#i#g#h#t# #s#h#o#w#s# #t#h#e# #s#t#a#t#e# #o#f# #t#h#e# #v#o#c#a#l# #t#r#a#c#t# #d#u#r#i#n#g# #t#h#e# #f#i#r#s#t# #h#a#l#f# #(#t#h#e# #s#t#o#p# #h#a#l#f#)# #o#f# #a#n# #a#f#f#r#i#c#a#t#e#�#t#+"o#r#d#�#.####R#e#t#r#o#f#l#e#x#�######�#�#�#�# #I#n# #a# #r#e#t#r#o#f#l#e#x# #c#o#n#s#o#n#a#n#t#,# #t#h#e# #t#o#n#g#u#e# #t#i#p# #i#s# #c#u#r#l#e#d# #b#a#c#k#w#a#r#d# #i#n# #t#h#e# #m#o#u#t#h#.# #E#n#g#l#i#s#h#�#y#�#i#s# #a# #r#e#t#r#o#f#l#e#x# #a#p#p#r#o#x#i#m#a#n#t# #-#-# #t#h#e# #t#o#n#g#u#e# #t#i#p# #i#s# #c#u#r#l#e#d# #u#p# #t#o#w#a#r#d# #t#h#e# #p#o#s#t#a#l#v#e#o#l#a#r# #r#e#g#i#o#n# #(#t#h#e# #a#r#e#a# #i#m#m#e#d#i#a#t#e#l#y# #b#e#h#i#n#d# #t#h#e# #a#l#v#e#o#l#a#r# #r#i#d#g#e#)#.# #�#�#�# #T#h#e# #d#i#a#g#r#a#m# #t#o# #t#h#e# #r#i#g#h#t# #s#h#o#w#s# #a# #t#y#p#i#c#a#l# #E#n#g#l#i#s#h# #r#e#t#r#o#f#l#e#x#�#y#.##�#�#�� Both the sounds we've called "postalveolar" and the sounds we've called "retroflex" involve the region behind the alveolar ridge. In fact, at least for English, you can think of retroflexes as being a sub-type of postalveolars, specifically, the type of postalveolars that you make by curling your tongue tip backward.#Palatal�#���� In a palatal consonant, the body of the tongue approaches or touches the hard palate. English�j�is a palatal approximant -- the tongue body approaches the hard palate, but clo#s#e#l#y# #e#n#o#u#g#h# #t#o# #c#r#e#a#t#e# #t#u#r#b#u#l#e#n#c#e# #i#n# #t#h#e# #a#i#r#-#s#t#r#e#a#m#.####V#e#l#a#r#�### ###�#�#�#�# #I#n# #a# #v#e#l#a#r# #c#o#n#s#o#n#a#n#t#,# #t#h#e# #b#o#d#y# #o#f# #t#h#e# #t#o#n#g#u#e# #a#p#p#r#o#a#c#h#e#s# #o#r# #t#o#u#c#h#e#s# #t#h#e# #s#o#f#t# #p#a#l#a#t#e#,# #o#r# #v#e#l#u#m#.# #E#n#g#l#i#s#h#�#k#,#g#,# #a#n#d#�#K#�#a#r#e# #s#t#o#p#s# #m#a#d#e# #a#t# #t#h#i#s# #P#O#A#.##�#�#�#�# #T#h#e# #d#i#a#g#r#a#m# #t#o# #t#h#e# #r#i#g#h#t# #s#h#o#w#s# #a# #t#y#p#i#c#a#l#�#k#�or�g�-- though where exactly on the velum the tongue body hits will vary a lot depending on the surrounding vowels.���� As we have seen, one of the two constrictions that form a�w�is a bilabial approximant. The other is a velar approximant: the tongue body approaches the soft palate.#Glottal�# ���� The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds. In an�/h/, this opening is narrow enough to create some turbulence in the air-stream flowing past the vocal folds. For this reason,�/h/�is often classified as a glottal fricative. Manners of articulation##���� The manner of articulation dimension is essentially everything else: how narrow the constriction is, whether air is flowing through the nose, and whether the tongue is dropped down on one side. Stops�#���� Stops are consonants formed by completely stopping the flow of air somewhere in the vocal apparatus, and then releasing the air. Since the sudden release of the pent-up air creates a small explosive sound, stops are also called plosives. Stops may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the stop) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the stop). Here is a list of the stops in English�t, d, k,g, p�and�b.#Fricatives�#���� In the stop�t, the tongue tip touches the alveolar ridge and cuts off the airflow. In s, the tongue tip approaches the alveolar ridge but doesn't quite touch it. There is still enough of an opening for airflow to continue, but the opening is narrow enough that it causes the escaping air to be#c#o#m#e# #t#u#r#b#u#l#e#n#t# #(#h#e#n#c#e# #t#h#e# #h#i#s#s#i#n#g# #s#o#u#n#d# #o#f# #t#h#e#�#s#)#.# #I#n# #a# #f#r#i#c#a#t#i#v#e# #c#o#n#s#o#n#a#n#t#,# #t#h#e# #a#r#t#i#c#u#l#a#t#o#r#s# #i#n#v#o#l#v#e#d# #i#n# #t#h#e# #c#o#n#s#t#r#i#c#t#i#o#n# #a#p#p#r#o#a#c#h# #g#e#t# #c#l#o#s#e# #e#n#o#u#g#h# #t#o# #e#a#c#h# #o#t#h#e#r# #t#o# #c#r#e#a#t#e# #a# #t#u#r#b#u#l#e#n#t# #a#i#r#-#s#t#r#e#a#m#.# #T#h#e# #f#r#i#c#a#t#i#v#e#s# #o#f# #E#n#g#l#i#s#h# #a#r#e#�#f#,# #v#,# #�#,# #�#,# #s#,# #z#,#�#+"�#a#n#d#�#�#.# ###Approximants�#���� In an approximant, the articulators involved in the constriction are further apart still than they are for a fricative. The articulators are still closer to each other than when the vocal tract is in its neutral position, but they are not even close enough to cause the air passing between them to become turbulent. The approximants of English are�w, j,############################################################################## ##############################################################�#y#,#�#a#n#d#l#.# ###A#f#f#r#i#c#a#t#e#s#�###�#�#�#�# #A#n# #a#f#f#r#i#c#a#t#e# #i#s# #a# #s#i#n#g#l#e# #s#o#u#n#d# #c#o#m#p#o#s#e#d# #o#f# #a# #s#t#o#p# #p#o#r#t#i#o#n# #a#n#d# #a# #f#r#i#c#a#t#i#v#e# #p#o#r#t#i#o#n#.# #I#n# #E#n#g#l#i#s#h#�#t#+",# #t#h#e# #a#i#r#f#l#o#w# #i#s# #f#i#r#s#t# #i#n#t#e#r#r#u#p#t#e#d# #b#y# #a# #s#t#o#p# #w#h#i#c#h# #i#s# #v#e#r#y# #s#i#m#i#l#a#r# #t#o#�#t#�#(#t#h#o#u#g#h# #m#a#d#e# #a# #b#i#t# #f#u#r#t#h#e#r# #b#a#c#k#)#.# #B#u#t# #i#n#s#t#e#a#d# #o#f# #f#i#n#i#s#h#i#n#g# #t#h#e# #a#r#t#i#c#u#l#a#t#i#o#n# #q#u#i#c#k#l#y# #a#n#d# #m#o#v#i#n#g# #d#i#r#e#c#t#l#y# #i#n#t#o# #t#h#e# #n#e#x#t# #s#o#u#n#d#,# #t#h#e# #t#o#n#g#u#e# #p#u#l#l#s# #a#w#a#y# #f#r#o#m# #t#h#e# #s#t#o#p# #s#l#o#w#l#y#,# #s#o# #t#h#a#t# #t#h#e#r#e# #i#s# #a# #p#e#r#i#o#d# #o#f# #t#i#m#e# #i#m#m#e#d#i#a#t#e#l#y# #a#f#t#e#r# #t#h#e# #s#t#o#p# #w#h#e#r#e# #t#h#e# #c#o#n#s#t#r#i#c#t#i#o#n# #i#s# #n#a#r#r#o#w# #e#n#o#u#g#h# #t#o# #c#a#u#s#e# #a# #t#u#r#b#u#l#e#n#t# #a#i#r#s#t#r#e#a#m#.##�#�#�#�# #I#n#�#t#+",# #t#h#e# #p#e#r#i#o#d# #o#f# #t#u#r#b#u#l#e#n#t# #a#i#r##s#t#r#e#a#m# #f#o#l#l#o#w#i#n#g# #t#h#e# #s#t#o#p# #p#o#r#t#i#o#n# #i#s# #t#h#e# #s#a#m#e# #a#s# #t#h#e# #f#r#i#c#a#t#i#v#e#�#+".# #E#n#g#l#i#s#h#�#d#�#�#i#s# #a#n# #a#f#f#r#i#c#a#t#e# #l#i#k#e#�#t#+",# #b#u#t# #v#o#i#c#e#d#.####L#a#t#e#r#a#l#s#�###�#�#�#�# #P#a#y# #a#t#t#e#n#t#i#o#n# #t#o# #w#h#a#t# #y#o#u# #a#r#e# #d#o#i#n#g# #w#i#t#h# #y#o#u#r# #t#o#n#g#u#e# #w#h#e#n# #y#o#u# #s#a#y# #t#h#e# #f#i#r#s#t# #c#o#n#s#o#n#a#n#t# #o#f# #/#l#i#:#f#/# #l#e#a#f#. Your tongue tip is touching your alveolar ridge (or perhaps your upper teeth), but this doesn't make�/l/�a stop. Air is still flowing during an�/l/�because the side of your tongue has dropped down and left an opening. (Some people drop down the right side of their tongue during an�/l/; others drop down the left; a few drop down both sides.) Sounds which involve airflow around the side of the tongue are called laterals. Sounds which are not lateral are called central.���� /l/�is the only lateral in English. The other sounds of English, like most of the sounds of the world's languages, are central.���� More specifically,�/l/�is a lateral approximant. The opening left at the side of the tongue is wide enough that the air flowing through does not become turbulent.Voicing##���� The voicing parameter specifies whether the vocal folds are vibrating. The vocal folds may be held against each other at just the right tension so that the air flowing past them from the lungs will cause them to vibrate against each other. We call this process voicing. Sounds which are made with vocal fold vibration are said to be voiced. Sounds made without vocal fold vibration are said to be voiceless.���� There are several pairs of sounds in English which differ only in voicing -- that is, the two sounds have identical places and manners of articulation, but one has vocal fold vibration and the other doesn't. The�############################################################################ #############################################�#�#o#f# #t#h#i#g#h# #a#n#d# #t#h#e#�#�#�#o#f# #t#h#y# #a#r#e# #o#n#e# #s#u#c#h# #p#a#i#r#.# #T#h#e# #o#t#h#e#r#s# #a#r#e#:## #V#o#i#c#e#l#e#s#s###p###t###k###f###�###s###+"##t#+"####V#o#i#c#e#d###b###d###g ###v###�###z###�###d#�#####�#�#�#�# #T#h#e# #o#t#h#e#r# #s#o#u#n#d#s# #o#f# #E#n#g#l#i#s#h# #d#o# #n#o#t# #c#o#m#e# #i#n# #v#o#i#c#e#d#/#v#o#i#c#e#l#e#s#s# #p#a#i#r#s#.#�#h#�#i#s# #v#o#i#c#e#l#e#s#s#,# #a#n#d# #h#a#s# #n#o# #v#o#i#c#e#d# #c#o#u#n#t#e#r#p#a#r#t#.# #T#h#e# #o#t#h#e#r# #E#n#g#l#i#s#h# #c#o#n#s#o#n#a#n#t#s# #a#r#e# #a#l#l# #v#o#i#c#e#d#:#�#y#,# #l#,# #w#,# #j#,# #m#,# #n#,#a#n#d#�#K#.##B#r#i#e#f# #d#e#s#c#r#i#p#t#i#o#n#s# #o#f# #E#n#g#l#i#s#h# #c#o#n#s#o#n#a#n#t#s#####�####�#�###V#o#i#c#i#n#g###P#l#a#c#e# #o#f###A#r#t#i#c#u#l#a#t#i#o#n###M#a#n#n#e#r#�#o#f###A#r#t#i#c#u#l#a#t#i#o#n###S #p#e#l#l#i#n#g#####/#p#/###v#o#i#c#e#l#e#s#s###b#i#l#a#b#i#a#l###s#t#o#p# #/# #p#l#o#s#i#v#e###I#t# #i#s# #s#p#e#l#t#�#p#:#�#p#l#a#n#e#�#o#r#�#p#p#:#�#o#p#p#o#s#i#t#e#�#a#n#d# #o#n#l#y# #e#x#c#e#p#t#i#o#n#a#l#ly�gh�in�hiccough.#The letter�p�is silent when followed by another obstruent or a nasal in word-initial position:psalm, pterodactyl, pneumatic.##/b/#voiced#bilabial#stop/plosive#�It is spelt�b:�bar�or bb:�ribbon#�The letter is silent in final position after�m:limb, crumb, dumb�and in front of�t�in words of Latin origin where the sound has long been lost:�debt, doubt, subtle.##/t/���#voiceless#alveolar#stop/plosive#It is spelt with�t:�toe, with�tt:�cutter�or withth:�Thomas, Thames##/d/���#voiced#alveolar#stop/plosive#It is spelt�d:�read�or�dd:�adder##/k/#voiceless#velar#stop/plosive#The sound can be represented by the letter�c:comb or by�cc:�accuse, by�k:�kill, by�ck:�pick, by�ch:�architect, by�qu:�queen.#In words like�muscle�and�knave�the letters�can�k�are silent.##/g/#voiced#velar#stop/plosive#The consonant can be rendered by�g:�get�bygg:�begged, or by�g�followed by�h, as inghastly, by�ua,�ue�or�ui, as in�guarantee,guess�or�linguist, respectively.#The voiced counterpart of /ks/, /gz/ can also be rendered by�x#�#i#n# #w#o#r#d#s# #l#i#k#e#�#e#x#a#m#p#l#e#.#####/#t#+"/###v#o#i#c#e#l#e#s#s###p#o#s#t#a#l#v#e#o#l #a#r###a#f#f#r#i#c#a#t#e###T#h#e# #p#h#o#n#e#m#e# #i#s# #r#e#p#r#e#s#e#n#t#e#d# #g#r#a#p#h#i#c#a#l#l#y# #b#y#c#h#:#�#c#h#a#r#m#,# #c#h#i#n#c#h#i#l#l#a#,# #r#i#c#h#�#o#r#�#t#c#h#:#�#k#i#t#c#h#e#n#,# #b#i#t#c#h#�#o#r# #b#y#�#t#�#f#o#l#l#o#w#e#d# #b#y#�#u#:#�#c#r#e#a#t#u#r#e#,# #c#u#l#t#u#r#e#w#h#e#n# #t#h#e# #p#l#o#s#i#v#e# #i#s# #p#a#l#a#t#a#l#i#z#e#d#.###I#n# #w#o#r#d#s# #l#i#k#e#�#h#a#b#i#t#u#a#l#,#�#s#a#n#c#t#u#a#r#y#�#t#h#e# #p#r#o#n#u#n#c#i#a#t#i#o#n# #w#i#t#h# #a#n# #a#f#f#r#i#c#a#t#e# #i#s# #a# #v#a#r#i#a#n#t# #o#f# #/#t#j#/#.###E#x#c#e#p#t#i#o#n#a#l#l#y#,# #w#e# #c#a#n# #h#a#v#e#�#c#e#�#o#r#�#c#z#�#a#s# #g#r#a#p#h#i#c# #r#e#p#r#e#s#e#n#t#a#t#i#o#n#s# #o#f# #t#h#e# #s#o#u#n#d# #i#n# #(#v#i#o#l#i#n#)#c#e#l#l#o#�#o#r#�#C#z#e#c#h#.#####/#d#�#/###v#o#i#c#e#d###p#o#s #t#a#l#v#e#o#l#a#r###a#f#f#r#i#c#a#t#e###I#t# #c#a#n# #b#e# #r#e#n#d#e#r#e#d# #g#r#a#p#h#i#c#a#l#l#y# #b#y#�#j#:#�#j#u#s#t#i#c#e#,# #J#o#h#n#,# #rejoice, pyjamas, by�ge:�gesture, agent, sage, by�gi:�giraffe, rigid; and�gy:gymnastics.#In certain words it can be spelt d followed byu:�gradual, individual, procedure/al. In all these cases, however, there is an alternative pronunciation /dj/.#In a number of proper names or common nouns originating in proper names�ch�is read /d############################################################################## ################################################################################ #######################�#/#:#�#N#o#r#w#i#c#h#,# #G#r#e#e#n#w#i#c#h#,# #S#/#s#a#n#d#w#i#c#h#.###A#n#o#t#h#e#r# #s#p#e#l#l#i#n#g# #c#a#n# #b#e#�#d#g#�#i#n# #w#o#r#d#s# #l#i#k#e#�#r#i#d#g#e#o#r#�#e#d#g#e#.#####/#m#/###v#o#i#c#e#d###b#i#l#a#b#i#a#l## #n#a#s#a#l###I#t# #c#a#n# #b#e# #s#p#e#l#t# #w#i#t#h#�#m#�#o#r#�#m#m#:#�#c#o#m#e#,# #c#o#m#m#o#n#####/#n#/###v#o#i#c#e#d###a#l#v#e#o#l#a#r###n#a#s#a#l###I#t# #i#s# #s#p#e#l#t#�#n#�#o#r#�#n#n#:#�#d#e#a#n#,# #a#n#n#u#a#l#.#####/#K#/###v#o#i#c#e#d###v#e#l#a#r###n#a#s#a#l###T#h#i#s# #p#h#o#n#eme has a limited distribution: it always precedes the voiceless velar plosive or occurs in syllable-final position in front of an elided /g/:�tank, ankle, sing, long.##/f/#voiceless#labiodental#fricative#The sound can be spelt�f:�fine, fringe, feud, loaf, stifle,�ff:�effort, snuff,�ph:�physics, graph, or even�gh:�enough, tough.#The word�lieutenant�/lef�ten######################################################## ################################################################################ #################Y#n#t#/# #i#s# #a# #p#a#r#t#i#c#u#l#a#r# #c#a#s#e#.#####/#v#/###v#o#i#c#e#d###l#a#b#i#o#d#e#n#t#a#l###f#r#i#c#a#t#i#v#e## #I#t# #i#s# #s#p#e#l#t# #w#i#t#h# #t#h#e# #l#e#t#t#e#r#�#v#:#�#v#e#i#n#,# #l#i#v#e#,# #v#o#i#c#e#.# #(#E#x#c#e#p#t#i#o#n#a#l#l#y#,# #b#y#�#p#h#�#i#n#�#S#t#e#p#h#e#n#,# #n#e#p#h#e#w#�#a#n#d#f#�#i#n#�#o#f#)#.#####/ #�#/###v#o#i#c#e#l#e#s#s###d#e#n#t#a#l###f#r#i#c#a#t#i#v#e###T#h#e# #s#o#u#n#d# #i#s# #r#e#n#d#e#r#e#d# #g#r#a#p#h#i#c#a#l#l#y# #b#y#�#t#h#:#�#t#h#i#n#,# #m#e#t#h#o#d#,# #p#a#t#h#.#The sound often occurs in clusters difficult to pronounce:�eighths,, depths, lengths..##/�/#voiced#dental#fricative#The sound is always spelt�th, like its voiceless counterpart:�within, then, they..##/s/#voiceless#alveolar#fricative#It is spelt�s,�ss�or�c�in front of�e, i�or�y:�sour, say, hiss, assign, ceiling, cellar, cigarette, precise, cypress, bicycle.#Sometimes the spelling can be�sce, sci�orscy:�science, scent, scene, scythe;�s�is silent in words like�corps, island, viscount.##/z/#voiced#alveolar#fricative#The sound is spelt�z. It is often spelt s when the sound does not occur in initial positon:nose, easy, desire, and, exceptionally,�tz�intzar.#Similarly, when it marks the plural of nouns ending in a voiced sound (e.g.�boys, balls, ribs) or when it is the voiced allomorph of the 3rd person singular present indicative of verbs ending in a voiced sound (e.g.�plays, calls, adds) the spelling is�s.#Exceptionally, the sound can be spelt doubless�in words like�dissolve, possess.##/#########################+"/###v#o#i#c#e#l#e#s#s###p#o#s#t#a#l#v#e#o# l#a#r###f#r#i#c#a#t#i#v#e###I#t# #i#s# #o#f#t#e#n# #s#p#e#l#t#�#s#h#�#i#n# #w#o#r#d#s# #l#i#k#e#�#s#h#o#e#,# #c#u#s#h#i#o#n#o#r#�#p#u#s#h#.###I#t# #c#a#n# #a#l#s#o# #b#e# #s#p#e#l#t#�#s#:#�#s#u#r#e#,# #s#u#g#a#r#�#o#r#�#s#s#:#p#r#e#s#s#u#r#e#,# #m#i#s#s#i#o#n#�#o#r#�#c#i#:#�#a#n#c#i#e#n#t#,# #d#e#l#i#c#i#o#u#s#,#s#c#i#:#�#c#o#n#s#c#i#o#u#s#,#�#c#e#:#�#o#c#e#a#n#,#�#s#i#: #�#p#e#n#s#i#o#n#,# #m#a#n#s#i#o#n#,#�#t#i#:#�#t#u#i#t#i#o#n#,# #r#e#t#r#i#b#u#t#i#o#n#.###I#t# #i#s# #a# #v#a#r#i#a#n#t# #o#f# #/#s#j#/# #i#n# #w#o#r#d#s# #l#i#k#e#�#i#s#s#u#e#,# #t#i#s#s#u#e#.###I#n# #w#o#r#d#s# #o#f# #F#r#e#n#c#h# #o#r#i#g#i#n# #t#h#e# #s#o#u#n#d# #i#s# #s#p#e#l#t#c#h#:#�#c#h#a#m#p#a#g#n#e#,# #c#h#a#r#a#d#e#,# #c#h#a#r#g#�#,# #m#o#u#s#t#a#c#h#e#,# #a#t#t#a#c#h#�#.###T#h#e# #s#a#m#e# #s#p#e#l#l#i#n#g# #i#s# #u#s#e#d# #i#n# #p#r#o#p#e#r# #n#a#m#e#s# #l#i#k#e#�#C#h#a#r#l#o#t#t#e#,# #C#h#i#c#a#g#o#,# #C#h#i#c#o#u#t#i#m#i#,# #M#i#c#h#i#g#a#n#.#####/#�#/###v#o#i#c#e#d###p#o#s#t#a#l#v#e#olar#fricative#It can be spelt either�s�when followed by�u: visual or�i:�decision, or�z�if followed by�u:seizure�or�ge:�massage,�espionage.#In words like casual the alternative pronunciation /zj/ is possible, while in other cases the fricative is replaced by the affricate /d############################################################################## ################################################################################ ###############################################################################� #/# #(#e#.#g#.#�#g#a#r#a#g#e#)#.#####/#y#/###v#o#i#c#e#d###r#e#t#r#o#f#l#e#x###a#p#p #r#o#x#i#m#a#n#t###T#h#e# #s#o#u#n#d# #i#s# #s#p#e#l#t#�#r#:#�#r#a#i#n#,# #r#i#n#g#�#o#r#�#r#r#:#�#c#a#r#r#y#,# #m#a#r#r#y#####/#j#/###v#o#i#c#e#d###p#a#l#a#t#a#l###a#p#p#r#o#x#i#m#a#n#t###T#h #e# #s#o#u#n#d# #m#a#y# #b#e# #s#p#e#l#t#�#y#�#(#a#s# #i#n#�#y#e#a#r#)# #w#h#i#l#e# #i#n# #w#o#r#d#s# #s#p#e#l#t# #w#i#t#h#�#u#,# #u#e#,# #u#i#,# #e#w#,# #e#u#�#a#n#d#�#e#a#u#r#e#a#d# #a#s# #t#h#e# #l#o#n#g# #v#o#w#e#l# #/#u#:#/# #t#h#e palatal sound is often inserted.##/w/#voiced#labial + velar#approximant#It can be rendered graphically either by the letter�w�(the most common case) (e.g.�sweet) or by�u�(e.g.�quite).##/l/#voiced#alveolar#lateral approximant#The phoneme is spelt either�l�or�ll�in words like�link�or�call, for instance. In many words, however, before plosive sounds like /k/ or /d/ � cf.�chalk, could; or before nasals like /m/ or /n/ � cf.�calm, Lincoln; the labio-dental fricatives /f/ and /v/ � cf.�calf, calves; the lateral sound is not pronounced.##/h/#voiceless#glottal#fricative#The conservative spelling of English has preserved the letter�h�after�r�in words of Greek origin where no�h�sound or aspiration is heard nowadays:�rhapsody, rhetoric, rheumatism, rhinal, rhinoceros, rhombus, rhyme, rhythm.### Assignment 1:������# HYPERLINK "http://www.cce1.udn.vn/ch/ktra.aspx?bh=402" #Click here#�to accomplish Assignment 1.� LESSON 3: ENGLISH CONSONANTS Choose the best answer. Tick A, B, C, or D. 1. People have been aware of the importance of sounds as vehicles of meaning for ... A. a very long time B. some years C. a hundred years D. a thousand years 2. Systematic studies on the speech sounds only appeared with A. the modern life B. the development of foreign language learning C. the development of modern sciences D. the development of tape recorders 3. The term phonetics comes from the ... A. Geek language B. Italian language C. English language D. Latin language 4. The term phonology first appeared in ... A. the end of the 19th century B. the end of the 18th century C. the early of the 19th century D. the early of the 18th century 5. The structuralism emphasizes the essential contrastive role of classes of sounds which are labeled ... A. phonetics B. phonology C. phonemes D. phones 6. The terms phonetics and phonology was used indiscriminately until... A. the first half of the 19th century B. the first half of the 20th century C. the end of the 19th century D. the end of the 20th century 7. Some fundamental distinctions between phonetics and phonology will be agreed about by ... A. most teachers B. most students C. most language users D. most linguists 8. Which of the following is NOT CORRECT?The central concerns in phonetics are the discovery of ... A. how speech sounds are produced B. how they are used in written language C. how we can record speech sounds with written symbols D. how we hear and recognise different sounds 9. Articulatory phonetics generally refers to the study of how humans ... A. produce speech sounds B. perceive speech sound C. transmit speech sounds D. interact with speech sounds 10. The International Phonetic Association has played a very important role in ... A. designing conventions for using sounds in speech B. using phonetic symbols for speech sounds C. making use of phonetic symbols that represent speech sounds D. designing conventions for using phonetic symbols that represent speech sounds 11. Auditory phonetics is concerned with the ... A. production of phonetic sounds of words of a language B. hearing of phonetic sounds of words of a language C. transmittion of phonetic sounds of words of a language D. description of phonetic sounds of words of a language 12. Which of the following statement is NOT CORRECT? A. The objective of phonemic analysis to establish what the phonetic sounds are and arrive at the phonemic inventory of the language. B. The objective of phonemic analysis to establish what the phonemes are and arrive at the phonemic inventory of the language. C. The most basic activity in phonology is phonemic analysis. D. A large number of phonologists have believed that it is necessary to go beyond phonemic analysis. 13. Which of the following DOES NOT belong to suprasegmental phonology ? A. stress B. rhythm C. intonation D. transcription 14. "Distinctive features" are mainly concerned with A. the detailed transcription of each unit B. the detailed characteristics of each unit C. the detailed articulation of each unit D. the detailed rules of each unit 15. Phonotactics is mainly concerned with the way in which ... A. sounds can combine in a language B. consonants can combine in a language C. vowels can combine in a language D. words can combine in a language 16. The soft portion of the roof of the mouth, lying behind the hard palate is called the ... A. uvula B. velum C. palate D. cavity 17. The lowest part of the tongue in the throat is called the ... A. epiglottis B. tongue root C. dorsum D. tongue blade 18. The small, dangly thing at the back of the soft palate is called the ... A. uvula B. larynx C. glottis D. dorsum 19. The hard portion of the roof of the mouth is called the ... A. velum B. uvula C. hard palate D. soft palate 20. The structure that holds and manipulates the vocal cords is called the ... A. pharynx B. larynx C. velum D. glottis 21. The fold of tissue below the root of the tongue is called the ... A. epiglottis B. pharynx C. larynx D. vocal cords 22. The main part of the tongue, lying below the hard and soft palate is called the ... A. tongue blade B. dorsum C. tongue D. tongue root 23. The opening between the vocal cords is called the A. oral cavity B. nasal cavity C. glottis D. epiglottis 24. Which of the following DOES NOT belong to the major dimensions of consonant classification? A. place of articulation B. pronunciation C. voicing D. manner of articulation 25. In producing a consonant there is a ........... in the vocal tract. A. construction B. constriction C. opening D. height 26. In a .............. consonant, the lower and upper lips approach or touch each other. A. dental B. labiodental C. bilabial D. palatal 27. In a ............. consonant, the body of the tongue approaches or touches the soft palate. A. bilabial B. velar C. postaveolar D. glottal 28. In a ............. consonant, the body of the tongue approaches or touches the hard palate. A. palatal B. velar C. dental D. labiodental 29. Which of the following statements is NOT CORRECT? A. The manner of articulation tells how narrow the constriction is. B. The manner of articulation tells where in the vocal tract the constriction occurs. C. The manner of articulation tells whether the tongue is dropped down on one side. D. The manner of articulation tells whether air is flowing through the nose. 30. The English t, d, and k are.... A. fricatives B. stops C. nasals D. approximants 31. In a ............... consonant, the articulators involved in the constriction approach get close enough to each other to create a turbulent air-stream. A. fricative B. stop C. nasal D. lateral 32. The major difference between the two consonants /f/ and /v/ is the ...... A. manner of articulation B. place of articulation C. voicing D. sound class 33. Sounds which are made with vocal fold vibration are said to be .......... A. voiced B. voiceless C. lateral D. affricate 34. The place of articulation of a consonant specifies .......... A. whether air is flowing through the nose B. whether the tongue is dropped down on one side C. where in the vocal tract the narrowing occurs D. how narrow the constriction is 35. /h/# #i#s# #a# #.#.#.#.#.#.#.#.#.#.#.#.#.# #s#o#u#n#d#.# # ##A#.# # #s#t#o#p# # ##B#.# # #f#r#i#c#a#t#i#v#e# # ##C#.# # #v#o#i#c#e#l#e#s#s# # ##D#.# # #B# #a#n#d# #C# #a#r#e# #c#o#r#r#e#c#t# # # ## #3#6#.# #/#m#/#,# #/#n#/#,# #a#n#d# #/#K#/# #a#r#e# #.#.#.#.#.#.#.#.#.#.#.#.# # ##A#.# # #o#r#a#l# #s#t#o#p#s# # ##B#.# # #n#a#s#a#l# #s#t#o#p#s# # # ##C#.# # #l#a#t#e#r#a#l# #s#o#u#n#d#s# # ##D#.# # #a#p#p#r#o#x#i#m#a#n#t#s# # # ## #3#7#.# #L#e#t#t#e#r# #h# #i#s# #s#i#l#e#n#t# #i#n# #t#h#e# #w#o#r#d# #.#......... A. hear B. history C. honour D. horn 38. The letter x in the word example is pronounced as ......... A. /ks/ B. /gz/ C. /s/ D. /z/ 39. Which of the CAPITALISED letters in the following pairs have the same pronunciation? A. poSSession - miSSion B. enouGH - thorouGH C. seiZure - garaGE D. iSland - hiStory 40. In which of the following words the CAPITALISED letter is silent? A. linGuist B. corpS C. Plane D. thoughT LESSON 4: ENGLISH VOWELS & DIPHTHONGSGlossary:���� In the last lesson, you were introduced to the classification of consonant sounds. The classification of consonants were shown to be based on three aspects of articulation: place of articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing. In this lesson, you will be introduced to vowel sounds and diphthongs.English vowels���� Vowels are the class of sound which makes the least obstruction to the flow of air. They are almost always found at the centre of a syllable, and it is rare to find any sound other than a vowel which is able to stand alone as a whole syllable. Classification of vowels���� The classification of vowels is based on five major aspects: tongue height, tongue backness, lip rounding, vowel length and the tenseness of the articulators.#Tongue Height����� Vowels are classified in terms of how much space there is between the tongue and the roof of the mouth, which is determined by the height of the tongue.���� There are three primary height distinctions among vowels: high, low, and mid.# INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.cce1.udn.vn/soanthao/rte/my_documents/my_files/pms4.1.JPG" \* MERGEFORMATINET #### INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.cce1.udn.vn/soanthao/rte/my_documents/my_files/pms4.2.JPG" \* MERGEFORMATINET #### INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.cce1.udn.vn/soanthao/rte/my_documents/my_files/pms4.3.JPG" \* MERGEFORMATINET ###/w/�/e//�/���� In English, examples of high vowels are /w/, / i:/,�/�/, /u:/. These are vowels with a relatively narrow space between the tongue and# #t#h#e# #r#o#o#f# #o#f# #t#h#e# #m#o#u#t#h#.# #E#x#a#m#p#l#e#s# #o#f# #l#o#w# #v#o#w#e#l#s# #a#r#e# #/#�#/#,# #/#Y#:#/#,# #/#Z#/#,# #/#]#:#/#.# #T#h#e#s#e# #a#r#e# #v#o#w#e#l#s# #w#i#t#h# #a# #r#e#l#a#t#i#v#e#l#y# #w#i#d#e# #s#p#a#c#e# #b#e#t#w#e#e#n# #t#h#e# #t#o#n#g#u#e# #a#n#d# #t#h#e# #r#o#o#f# #o#f# #t#h#e# #m#o#u#t#h#.# #E#x#a#m#p#l#e#s# #o#f# #m#i#d# #v#o#w#e#l#s# #a#r#e# #/#e#/#,# #/##"/#,# #/#f#:#/#,# #/#�#/#.# #T#h#e#s#e# #a#r#e# #v#o#w#e#l#s# #w#h#o#s#e# #t#o#n#g#u#e# #p#o#s#i#t#i#o#n#s# #a#r#e roughly between the high and low vowels.���� These classifications are quite relative, as different languages have different canonical tongue heights for different classifications.���� As you can see from the above diagrams, the tongue height of the high vowel /w/ is much higher than that for the low vowel /�/, while the tongue height for the mid vowel /e/ lies somewhere in between the two.#Tongue Backness����� The second aspect of vowel classification that you will be introduced to is that of tongue backness. Vowels are classified in terms of how far the raised body of the tongue is from the back of the mouth, which is called the backness of the tongue.���� There are three primary height distinctions among vowels: front, back, and central.���� In English, examples of front vowels are /w/, /i:/, /e/, /�/. These vowels are articulated relatively forward in the mouth. Examples of back vowels are /�/, /u:/, /Y:/, /Z/, /]:/. These vowels are articulated relatively far back in the mouth.. Examples of centra#l# #v#o#w#e#l#s# #a#r#e# #/##"/#,# #/#f#:#/#,# #/#�#/#.# #T#h#e#s#e# #a#r#e# #v#o#w#e#l#s# #w#h#o#s#e# #t#o#n#g#u#e# #p#o#s#i#t#i#o#n#s# #a#r#e# #r#o#u#g#h#l#y# #b#e#t#w#e#e#n# #t#h#e# #f#r#o#n#t# #a#n#d# #b#a#c#k# #v#o#w#e#l#s#.##�#�#�#�# #T#h#e#s#e# #c#l#a#s#s#i#f#i#c#a#t#i#o#n#s#,# #l#i#k#e# #t#h#e# #t#o#n#g#u#e# #h#e#i#g#h#t#s#,# #a#r#e# #q#u#i#t#e# #r#e#l#a#t#i#v#e#,# #a#s# #d#i#f#f#e#r#e#n#t# #l#a#n#g#u#a#g#e#s# #h#a#v#e# #d#i#f#f#e#r#e#n#t# #c#a#n#o#n#i#c#a#l# #t#o#n#g#u#e# #b#a#c#k#n#e#s#s#e#s# #for different classifications.���� As illustration of tongue backness, observe the following diagrams for the vowels /w/, /u:/.�# INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.cce1.udn.vn/soanthao/rte/my_documents/my_files/pms4.4.JPG" \* MERGEFORMATINET #### INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.cce1.udn.vn/soanthao/rte/my_documents/my_files/pms4.5.JPG" \* MERGEFORMATINET ###�/i://u:/���� As you can see from the diagrams, the articulation of the front vowel /i:/ is much farther forward than that for the back vowel /u:/.#Lip Rounding����� Another aspect of vowel classification is the presence or absence of lip rounding. Some vowels, such as the vowels /u:/ and /]:/, are formed with a high degree of lip rounding. Such vowels are called rounded vowels. Some vowels, such as /i:/ and /e/, are formed without such rounding, and are called unrounded vowels.#Vowel Length����� Vowel length is the length of time it takes to pronounce the vowel. We can measure this length in centiseconds - hundredths of a second.Short English vowels: /w/#,# #/#�#/#,# #/#�#/#,# #/#Z#/#,# #/#e#/#,# #/##"/#,# #/#�#/##L#o#n#g# #E#n#g#l#i#s#h# #v#o#w#e#l#s#:# #/#i#:#/#,# #/#u#:#/#,# #/#Y#:#/#,# #/#]#:#/#,# #/#f#:#/# #�#�#�#�# #S#o#m#e# #l#a#n#g#u#a#g#e#s#,# #l#i#k#e# #E#n#g#l#i#s#h#,# #v#a#r#y# #t#h#e# #l#e#n#g#t#h#s# #o#f# #t#h#e#i#r# #v#o#w#e#l#s# #a#c#c#o#r#d#i#n#g# #t#o# #c#e#r#t#a#i#n# #r#u#l#e#s#.# #B#e#l#o#w# #y#o#u# #c#a#n# #s#e#e# #t#h#e# #t#y#p#i#c#a#l# #o#r# #a#v#e#r#a#g#e# #l#e#n#g#t#h# #o#f# #s#o#m#e# #o#f# #t#h#e# #v#o#w#e#l#s# #i#n# #E#n#g#l#i#sh.���� As we will see, there is not a clear-cut long/short distinction. Typically, each vowel has its own length, with for instance /�/ holding a half-way position between lax and tense vowels. Also, lengths of different vowels overlap in different contexts: looking at /i:/ and / w/ we found the following situation. The lengths are given in centiseconds. #Tense vs. Lax����� Another aspect of vowel classification is commonly characterized in terms of the tenseness or laxness of the articulators. Some vowels#,# #s#u#c#h# #a#s# #t#h#e# #v#o#w#e#l#s# #/#i#:#/# #a#n#d# #/#e#/#,# #a#r#e# #f#o#r#m#e#d# #w#i#t#h# #a# #h#i#g#h# #d#e#g#r#e#e# #o#f# #t#e#n#s#e#n#e#s#s#.# #S#u#c#h# #v#o#w#e#l#s# #a#r#e# #c#a#l#l#e#d# #t#e#n#s#e# #v#o#w#e#l#s#.# #S#o#m#e# #v#o#w#e#l#s#,# #s#u#c#h# #a#s# #/##"/# #a#n#d# #/#�#/ #,# #a#r#e# #f#o#r#m#e#d# #w#i#t#h#o#u#t# #a# #h#i#g#h# #d#e#g#r#e#e# #o#f# #t#e#n#s#e#n#e#s#s#,# #a#n#d# #a#r#e# #c#a#l#l#e#d# #l#a#x# #v#o#w#e#l#s#.# #�#�#�#�# #T#h#e# #g#e#n#e#r#a#l# #r#u#l#e# #i#s#:##l#a#x#�#v#o#w#e#l#s# #(#/#w#/#,# #/#�#/#,# #/#�#/#,# #/#Z#/#,# #/#e#/#,# #/##"/#,# #/#�#/#)# #a#r#e# #s#h#o#r#t#.##t#e#n#s#e#�#(#/#i#:#/#,# #/#u#:#/#,# #/#Y#:#/#,# #/#]#:#/#,# #/#f#:#/#)# #v#o#w#e#l#s# #(#i#n#c#l#u#d#i#n#g# #d#i#p#h#t#h#o#n#g#s#:# #/#e#w#/ #,# #/#a#w#/#,# #/#]#w#/#,# #/##"�#/#,#/#a#�#/#,# #/#w##"/#,# #/#�##"/#,# #/#�#�##"/#)# #a#r#e# #v#a#r#i#a#b#l#e# #i#n# #l#e#n#g#t#h#,# #a#n#d# #o#f#t#e#n# #l#o#n#g#e#r# #t#h#a#n# #l#a#x# #v#o#w#e#l#s#.#### #I#N#C#L#U#D#E#P#I#C#T#U#R#E# #"#h#t#t#p#:#/#/#w#w#w#.#c#ce1.udn.vn/soanthao/rte/my_documents/my_files/ pms4.6.JPG" \* MERGEFORMATINET ###English vowel charts�# INCLUDEPICTURE "http:// www.cce1.udn.vn/soanthao/rte/my_documents/my_files/pms4.7.JPG" \* MERGEFORMATINET #### INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.cce1.udn.vn/soanthao/rte/my_documents/my_files/pms4.8.JPG" \* MERGEFORMATINET ###�(Source: University of Stirling, Centre for English Language Teaching)�Descriptions of the English simple (�pure�) vowels#English front vowels����� There are four front vowel phonemes in English: /w/, /i:/, /e/, /�/ SoundDescriptionDistributionSpelling/i:/#######��front, close (high), long, tense, unrounded######initial, medial and final:�east, dean, sea#######��e: economy, remark�#ee: eel, see, feet,�#ea: each, seal, plea#ie: fiend#ei: seizing�#i: machine#ey: key�#ay: quay#eo: people#oe: Oedipus�#eau: Beauchamp /w/#####�more retracted, front, short, lax, unrounded####�initial, medial and final:�ink,#kill, aptly####�i: ill, tick#y: syntax, party#u: minute#a: private#o: women#ay: Friday (a reduced unstressed vowel)/e/##�front, short, lax, unrounded###�initial or medial:�end, tell###�e: elf, fell#ea: lead (n. = plumb), head or bread#a: ate (the past tense of eat), many, any, Thames or Pall Mall /�/#�lowest, front, short, lax, unroundedinitial or medial:�ant, cata: act, fat#ai: plait, plaid#English central vowels����� There are three central vowel phonemes in English: /�############################################################################## ################/#,# #/##"/#,# #/#f#:#/##/#�#/#########�##a# #c#e#n#t#r#a#l# #h#a#l#f#o#p#e#n#,# #s#h#o#r#t#,# #l#a#x#,# #u#n#r#o#u#n#d#e#d# #v#o#w#e#l#######�##w#o#r#d#-#i#n#i#t#i#a#l# #a#n#d# #m#e#d#i#a#l# #p#o#s#i#t#i#o#n#:#u#t#t#e#r#,# #s#u#b#t#l#e#.# #I#t###n#e#v#e#r# #o#c#c#u#r#s# #i#n# #w#o#r#d# #o#r# #s#y#l#l#a#b#l#e#f#i#n#a#l# #p#o#s#i#t#i#o#n#.##u#:# #u#n#d#e#r#,# #b#u#t###o#:# #c#o#m#e#,# #f#r#o#n#t#,# #h#o#n#e#y###o#u#:# #c#o#u#r#a#g#e#,# #s#o#u#t#h#e#r#n#,# #r#o#u#g#h#,# #t#o#u#g#h###o#o#:# #b#l#o#o#d#,# #f#l#o#o#d###o#e#:# #d#o#e#s###/##"/##�############�##a# #c#e#n#t#r#a#l#,# #m#i#d#,# #l#a#x#,# #u#n#r#o#u#n#d#e#d# #v#o#w#e#l######�# #####�##f#r#e#e#l#y# #o#c#c#u#r#r#i#n#g# #i#n# #a#l#l# #b#a#s#i#c###p#o#s#i#t#i#o#n#s#,# #b#u#t# #o#n#l#y# #i#n###u#n#s#t#r#e#s#s#e#d# #s#y#l#l#a#b#l#e#s#:#a#s#i#d#e#,# #c#o#l#l#i#d#e#,# #r#a#t#h#e#r######�##T#h#e# #r#e#d#u#c#e#d# #f#o#r#m# #o#f# #a#n#y# #s#i#m#p#l#e# #v#o#w#e#l# #o#r# #e#v#e#n# #d#i#p#h#t#h#o#n#g# #(#s#e#e#f#a#t#a#l#i#t#y#,# #a#b#o#v#e#)# #i#n# #E#n#glish and can consequently be rendered in writing by any vowel letter with the#exception of�y�which only represents the semivowel�j�or the vowel�i. /f:/#####�central, mid, long, tense central vowel#in all three basic positions, very often in monosyllabic words:�err, first, curtain, fur, referir: bird#ur: burn#er: fern#yr: myrtle#ear: learn#our: journey, journal, scourge#English back vowels� There are five back vowel phonemes in standard English: /�/, /u:/, /Y:/, /Z/, /]://Y:/########�a more advanced, low, long, tense, unrounded vowel#######� initial, medial and final:�are, cart, far#######�ar: jar, carpet#al: palm, calm, balm#af (ff): after, staff#ass: pass, class#ath: path, bath#as�or�an�followed by another consonant: past, demand#Exceptionally, other letters: aunt, Berkeley, hearth, father, sergeant, memoir , barrage/Z/###�short, lax, open and slightly rounded##�initial or medial:on, poto: hot, lot�#ou: cough�#a: want#au: laurel/]:/####��a long, tense vowel, more rounded than /Z/. It is the degree of aperture being between open and half-open.initial, medial and final: awful, caught, flaw####�aw: awl, drawn, thaw#au: August, taught�#or: for, sore, port�#oor: floor, door�#oa: board, broad, coarse, hoard�#ough: (n)ought, sought, wrought�#ou: course, source�#a: water, wrath/�/######�short, lax, rounded vowel which is considerably closer than /]:/, its degree of aperture being a little bit higher than the cardinal half-close.Being restricted to medial position; never occurring in initial position and only exceptionally in final position.#�u: push, cushion, pull, put#o: wolf, Worcester#oo: look, book, foot#ou: would, could, should###� /u:/####the highest back vowel of English. It is a long, tense, rounded vowel.# initial, medial and final:�oom, oomph, ooze, ugh, uhlan; rude, baboon, crew, chew, tatoou: rule, music, mutiny, deluge#ui: suit, fruit�#o: to, who, ado#oo: root, taboo�#ou: route, through, routine, douche�#oe: shoe, canoe, manoeuvre#eau: beauty�#eu: feuEnglish DiphthongsClassification of diphthongs���� Diphthongs are described as sequences of two vowels pronounced together, the two vocalic elements being members of the same syllable. The most important feature of a diphthong is that it contains a glide from one vowel quality to another one. According to the position of the more prominent element in the diphthong we can divide diphthongs into falling diphthongs � if the prominent element comes first � and rising diphthongs � if the less prominent element comes first. All English diphthongs belong to the first category. Diphthongs can then be opening if the degree of aperture increases with the glide or closing if the less prominent vowel is closer than the first. We can also differentiate between wide diphthongs � those in which the glide implies a more radical movement of the speech organs and narrow diphthongs � if the two vocalic elements occupy neighbouring positions on the vowel chart. There are also centring diphthongs � if the glide is from a marginal vo#w#e#l# #i#n# #t#h#e# #v#o#w#e#l# #c#h#a#r#t# ## #e#i#t#h#e#r# #b#a#c#k# #o#r# #f#r#o#n#t# #-# #t#o# #a# #c#e#n#t#r#a#l# #v#o#w#e#l#.# #T#o# #m#a#k#e# #i#t# #s#i#m#p#l#e#,# #w#e# #c#a#n# #s#a#y# #t#h#a#t# #t#h#e#r#e# #a#r#e# #t#h#r#e#e# #d#i#p#h#t#h#o#n#g#s# #e#n#d#i#n#g# #i#n# #/#w#/# #(#/#e#w#/#,# #/#a#w#/#,# #/#]#w#/#)#,# #t#w#o# #e#n#d#i#n#g# #i#n# #/##"/# #(#/#w##"/#,# #/#�##"/#,# #/#�##"/#)# #a#n#d# #t#h#r#e#e# #e#n#d#i#n#g# #i#n# #/#�#/# #(#/##"�#/#,# #/#a#�#/#)#.##�#�#�#�# #T#h#e# #e#a#s#i#e#s#t# way to remember them is in terms of three groups divided as in this diagram:# INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.cce1.udn.vn/soanthao/rte/my_documents/ my_files/pms4.9.JPG" \* MERGEFORMATINET ###The descriptions of English diphthongsThe centring diphthongs:�/w################################################################## ################################################################################ ################################################################################ ###############################"/#,# #/#�##"/#,# #/#�##"/##S#o#u#n#d#�# #D#e#s#c#r#i#p#t#i#o#n##D#i#s#t#r#i#b#u#t#i#o#n##S#p#e#l#l#i#n#g## #/#�##"/#############�##a# #c#e#n#t#r#i#n#g#,# #f#a#l#l#i#n#g#,# #n#a#r#r#o#w#,# #i#n# #m#o#s#t# #c#a#s#e#s# #o#p#e#n#i#n#g# #d#i#p#h#t#h#o#n#g### #i#n#i#t#i#a#l#,# #m#e#d#i#a#l# #a#n#d# #f#i#n#a#l#:#�#a#i#r#,# #s#c#a#r#c#e#,# #f#a#r#e######a#i#r#:# #a#i#r#,# #f#a#i#r#,# #c#h#a#i#r#,# #d#a#i#r#y#,# #f#a#i#r#y###a#r#e#:# #f#a#r#e#,# #m#a#r#e#,# #c#a#r#e#,# #c#a#r#e###e#a#r#:# #b#e#a#r#,# #w#e#a#r#,# #t#e#a#r# #(#v#.#)#�###a#e#r#:# #a#e#r#i#a#l#,# #a#e#r#o#p#l#a#n#e#�###e#r#e#:# #t#h#e#r#e###e#i#r#:# #t#h#e#i#r#,# #h#e#i#r###a#y#:# #p#r#a#y#e#r#,# #l#a#y#e#r#,# #m#a#y#o#r###/#�##"/#####�##a# #c#e#n#t#r#i#n#g#,# #f#a#l#l#i#n#g#,# #n#a#r#r#o#w#,# #o#p#e#n#i#n#g# #d#i#p#h#t#h#o#n#g##o#n#l#y# #i#n# #w#o#r#d# #m#e#d#i#a#l#:#�#j#e#w#e#l#�#o#r# #w#o#r#d#-#f#i#n#a#l# #p#o#s#i#t#i#o#n#:#s#u#r#e##u#r#e#:# #e#n#d#u#r#e#,# #m#a#t#u#r#e#,# #c#u#r#e#,# #p#u#r#e###o#o#r#:# #p#o#o#r#,# #m#o#o#r#�###o#u#:# #g#o#u#r#d#,# #b#o##r#s#e###/#w##"/###################�##a# #c#e#n#t#r#i#n#g#,# #f#a#l#l#i#n#g#,# #n#a#r#r#o#w#,# #o#p#e#n#i#n#g# #d#i#p#h#t#h#o#n#g########### #i#n#i#t#i#a#l#,# #m#e#d#i#a#l# #a#n#d# #f#i#n#a#l#:#�#e#a#r#,# #d#e#e#r#,# #t#i#e#r#################�##e#e#r#:# #d#e#e#r#,# #p#e#e#r#�###b#:# #e#a#r#,# #w#e#a#r#y#,# #i#d#e#a#,# #t#e#a#r#,# #b#e#a#r#d###e#i#r#:# #w#e#i#r#d###i#e#r#:# #f#i#e#r#c#e#,# #p#i#e#r#c#e###e#r#e#:# #h#e#r#e#,# #m#e#r#e###i#a#:# #m#e#d#i#a#(#l#)#,# #l#a#b#i#a#(#l#)#,# #g#e#nial#eu: museum#iu: delirium#eo: theory, theology�#e: hero, serious, serialThe diphthongs to /w/: /ew/, /aw/, /]w/�/aw/#######�a falling, wide, closing diphthong######� initial, medial and final:�isle, bite, cry######�i: ice, dime, loci�#y: dyke, fly�#ie: die, lie, pie�#ye: dye, fye�#ei: height, either, neither#uy: in buy, guy#Note also the pronunciation of ay(e) /############################################################################### #############################################################a#1#/#,# #e#y#e# #/ #a#1#/# #a#n#d# #a#i#s#l#e# #/#a#1#l#/#.###/#]#w#/####�##a# #f#a#l#l#i#n#g#,# #w#i#d#e#,# #c#l#o#s#i#n#g# #d#i#p#h#t#h#o#n#g##i#n#i#t#i#a#l#,# #m#e#d#i#a#l# #a#n#d# #f#i#n#a#l#:#�#o#i#n#t#m#e#n#t#,# #b#o#i#l#,# #t#o#y##o#i#:# #o#i#l#,# #t#o#i#l#�###o#y#:# #o#y#s#t#e#r#,# #B#o#y#l#e#,# #c#o#y###/#e#w#/# ###############�##a# #f#a#l#l#i#n#g#,# #n#a#r#r#o#w#,# #c#l#o#s#i#n#g# #d#i#p#h#t#h#o#n#g################�##i#n#i#t#i#a#l#,# #m#e#d#i#a#l# #a#n#d# #f#i#n#a#l#:#�#e#i#g#h#t#,# #p#late, play#####a: ace, lace#ai: aid, maid�#ay: aye, clay#ei: eight, reign#ey: they, grey,�#ea: break, steak#et�or��: ballet, bouquet, chalet, caf�, fianc�, attach�, resum�#Exceptionally, there are spellings like gaol, bass, gauge, halfpenny .The diphthongs to /�############################################################################## ################################################################################ ################################################################################ #########/#:# #/##"�#/#,# #/#a#�#/##/##"�#/###################�##a# #f#a#l#l#i#n#g#,# #n#a#r#r#o#w#,# #c#l#o#s#i#n#g# #d#i#p#h#t#h#o#n#g#################�##i#n#i#t#i#a#l#,# #m#e#d#i#a#l# #a#n#d# #f#i#n#a#l#:#�#o#l#d#,# #g#o#l#d#,# #f#l#o#w#################�##o#:# #o#l#d#,# #s#o#l#d#,# #n#o###o#a#:# #o#a#k#,# #r#o#a#s#t###o#e#:# #t#o#e###o#w#:# #o#w#n#,# #k#n#o#w#n#,# #r#o#w#�###o#u#:# #p#o#u#l#t#r#y#,# #d#o#u#g#h#�###e#a#u#:# #b#e#a#u#,# #b#u#r#e#a#u#�###a#u#:# #g#a#u#c#h#e###o#o#:# #b#r#o#o#c#h###e#w#:# #s#e#w##oh: oh/a�/##�a falling, wide, closing diphthong#��initial, medial and final:�ouch, loud, boughou: oust, doubt, plough#ow: owl, howl, how#eo: MacLeod##LESSON 5:PHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS Glossary:Phone/Phoneme/Allophone����� A great deal of evidence indicates that humans perceive speech sounds in a way that is vastly simplified from how they actually sound. Specifically, an unbroken stream of phonetic speech is perceived as a sequence of abstract psychological units called phonemes. The science of�phonology, or the study of how speech sounds are perceived by and organized in the brain, usually assumes that phonemes exist.���� Some sounds that are phonetically different nevertheless sound the same to English speakers, e.g. [t] and [th], [l] and [|], [p] and [ph]. Similar groups of sounds can be found for any human language. Such a group of phones that sound alike to a speaker of a language represent a�phoneme: a purely psychological entity that a speaker considers to be a single sound, even though it may have various phonetic shapes, or�allophones.Definitionsa.�phone: a physical language sound, measurable by acoustic instruments.#b.�phoneme: a language sound as it is perceived by a speaker.#c.�allophone: a phone in complementary distribution with other allophones that are related to the same phoneme.Allophones have three important characteristics:(i) they are perceived as the same sound,#(ii) they are in complementary distribution, and#(iii) they are usually phonetically similar.���� We distinguish phones from phonemes in our notation by writing them in square brackets and slash brackets, respectively: e.g. [t] and [th] are allophones of the English phoneme /t/, [l] and [|] are allophones of English /l/, and [p] and [ph] are allophones of English /p/. We must therefore distinguish at least two ways of transcribing speech.���� A�phonemic (or broad) transcription�shows the sequence of phonemes that a native speaker perceives in the speech stream, while a�phonetic (or narrow) transcription�shows (in grea#t#e#r# #o#r# #l#e#s#s#e#r# #d#e#t#a#i#l#)# #t#h#e# #a#c#t#u#a#l# #p#h#o#n#e#s# #t#h#a#t# #o#c#c#u#r# #i#n# #t#h#e# #s#p#e#e#c#h# #s#t#r#e#a#m#.##P#h#o#n#e#m#i#c# #a#n#d# #p#h#o#n#e#t#i#c# #t#r#a#n#s#c#r#i#p#t#i#o#n#s# #o#f# #s#o#m#e# #/#t#/# #w#o#r#d#s##�# #P#h#o#n#e#m#i#c##P#h#o#n#e#t#i#c###a#.#�#t#a#b#l#e##/#t#e#w#b#l#/# #[#t#h#e#w#b#|#]###b#.# #b#a#t#t#e#r##/#b#�#t##"/##[#b#�#�##"]###c#.# #s#t#o#p# #/#s#t#]#p#/##[#s#t#]#p#]###P#h#o#n#e#m#e# #v#s#.# #P#h#o#n#e#s# #v#s#.# #A#l#l#o#p#h#o#n#esPhonemesPhonesAllophoneso Abstract sounds stored in our memory#o Mental representation of the sounds#o Finite number of phonemes#o Organizable (labial, interdental, alveolar.. etc.)#o Contrastive phonological segments, distinctive sounds#o The substitution of one for the other makes a different word.#o Phonemes vary from language to language.#o Designated in slashes / /o Concrete phonetic segments#o Actual realization#of the phonemes#o Infinite number of phones#o Hard to organize#o Non-contrastive#o You never hear same phone twice.#o Designated in brackets [ ]o The different phones that are the realizations of one phoneme#o Predictable#o Phonetic variants of a phoneme#o Rule-governed#o No difference in meaning, no minimal pairs#o Designated in brackets [ ]#Distribution�Complementary distribution���� Complementary distribution is commonly applied to phonology, where similar phones in complementary distribution are usually allophones of the same phoneme. For instance, in English, [p] and [ph] are allophones of the phoneme /p/ because they occur in complementary distribution. [ph] always occurs when it is the syllable onset and followed by a stressed vowel (as in the word�pin). [p] occurs in all other situations (as in the wordspin).���� Complementary distribution is an indication that the sounds in question areallophones of the same phoneme.���� There are cases where elements are in complementary distribution, but are not considered allophones. For example in English [h] and [######################[#K#]# #(#e#n#g#m#a#,# #w#r#i#t#t#e#n# #a#s# #"#n#g#"# #i#n# #E#n#g#l#i#s#h#)# #a#r#e# #i#n# #c#o#m#p#l#e#m#e#n#t#a#r#y# #d#i#s#t#r#i#b#u#t#i#o#n#,# #s#i#n#c#e# #[#h#]# #o#n#l#y# #o#c#c#u#r#s# #a#t# #t#h#e# #b#e#g#i#n#n#i#n#g# #o#f# #a# #s#y#l#l#a#b#l#e# #a#n#d# #[#K#]# #o#n#l#y# #a#t# #t#h#e# #e#n#d#.# #B#u#t# #b#e#c#a#u#s#e# #t#h#e#y# #h#a#v#e# #s#o# #l#i#t#t#l#e# #i#n# #c#o#m#m#o#n# #t#h#e#y# #a#r#e# #s#t#i#l#l# #c#o#n#s#i#d#e#r#e#d# #s#e#p#a#r#a#t#e# #p#h#o#n#e#m#e#s#.##C#o#n#t#r#a#s#t#i#v#e# #d#i#s#t#ribution���� Contrastive distribution means that the sounds are distributed in the data in a way that distinguishes one word from another. For example the sounds /p/ and /k/ are in contrastive distribution in English in such words as�skill�and�spill.�� Contrastive distribution is an indication that the two sounds in question are�different phonemes.Free Variation����� The substitutability of one sound for another in a given environment, with no change in the word�s meaning. For example, the word�economics�may be pronounced with /w/ or /e/ in the first syllable;�tomato�is pronounced differently in British and American English; or�either�has two pronunciations which are fairly randomly distributed.#Minimal pair����� In establishing the set of phonemes of a############################################################################### ################################################################################ ################################################################################ ################ #l#a#n#g#u#a#g#e#,# #i#t# #i#s# #u#s#u#a#l# #t#o# #d#e#m#o#n#s#t#r#a#t#e# #t#h#e# #i#n#d#e#p#e#n#d#e#n#t#,# #c#o#n#t#r#a#s#t#i#v#e# #n#a#t#u#r#e# #o#f# #a# #p#h#o#n#e#m#e# #b#y# #c#i#t#i#n#g# #p#a#i#r#s# #o#f# #w#o#r#d#s# #w#h#i#c#h# #d#i#f#f#e#r# #i#n# #o#n#e# #s#o#u#n#d# #o#n#l#y# #a#n#d# #h#a#v#e# #d#i#f#f#e#r#e#n#t# #m#e#a#n#i#n#g#s#.# #T#h#u#s# #i#n# #E#n#g#l#i#s#h# #'#f#a#i#r#y#'#�#/#'#f#�##"�#w#/# #a#n#d# #'#f#a#i#r#l#y#'# #/#f#�##"l#w#/# #m#a#k#e# #a# #m#i#n#i#m#a#l# #p#a#i#r# #a#n#d# #p#r#o#v#e# #that /�/ and /l/ are separate, contrasting phonemes.���� Sometimes an exact minimal pair contrasting two phonemes does not exist in a language. Linguists then look for near minimal pairs.���� In a�near minimal pair�only the sounds surrounding the phonemes are identical. Could you come up with a minimal pair for /############################################################################### ################################################################################ #####################################+",#�#�#/#?# #A# #n#e#a#r# #m#i#n#i#m#a#l# #p#a#i#r# #f#o#r# #t#h#e#s#e# #p#h#o#n#e#m#e#s# #i#s#�#m#i#s#s#i#o#n#,# #v#i#s#i#o#n#:# #/#'#m#w#+"#"n#/# #/#'#v#i#�##"n#'#/####D#i#s#t#i#n#c#t#i#v#e# #F#e#a#t#u#r#e#s#�##�#�#�#�# #I#n# #a#n#y# #l#a#n#g#u#a#g#e# #i#t# #s#e#e#m#s# #t#h#a#t# #t#h#e# #s#o#u#n#d#s# #u#s#e#d# #w#i#l#l# #o#n#l#y# #d#i#f#f#e#r# #f#r#o#m# #e#a#c#h# #o#t#h#e#r# #i#n# #a# #s#m#a#l#l# #n#u#m#b#e#r# #o#f# #w#a#y#s#.# #I#f# #f#o#r# #e#x#a#m#p#l#e# #a# #l#a#n#g#u#a#g#e# #h#a#d# #4#0# #p#h#o#n#emes, then in theory each of those 40 could be utterly different from the other 39. However, in practice there will usually be just a small set of important differences: some of the sounds will be vowels and some consonants; some of the consonants will be plosives and affricates, and the rest will be continuants; some of the continuants will be nasal and some not, and so on. These differences are identified by phonologists, and are known as distinctive features. There is disagreement about how to define the features (e.g. whether they should be labelled according to articulatory characteristics or acoustic ones), and about how many features are needed in order to be able to classify the sounds of all the languages in the world.#Major class features����� These features represent the classes: consonant, obstruent, nasal, liquid, glide, and vowel.[� consonantal]���� Sounds which are [+ consonantal] are those which have some kind of constriction along the center of the vocal tract. This constriction must be at# #l#e#a#s#t# #a#s# #n#a#r#r#o#w# #a#s# #t#h#a#t# #r#e#q#u#i#r#e#d# #f#o#r# #a# #f#r#i#c#a#t#i#v#e#.# #E#x#a#m#p#l#e#s#:# #[#p#]# #[#b#]# #[#s#]# #[#z#]# #[#t#+"]# #[#�#]##[#�# #s#o#n#o#r#a#n#t#]##�#�#�#�# #S#o#u#n#d#s# #w#h#i#c#h# #a#r#e# #[#+#s#o#n#o#r#a#n#t#]# #a#r#e# #t#h#o#s#e# #w#h#i#c#h# #a#r#e# #p#r#o#d#u#c#e#d# #w#i#t#h# #a# #c#o#n#s#t#r#i#c#t#i#o#n# #i#n# #t#h#e# #v#o#c#a#l# #t#r#a#c#t# #t#h#a#t# #a#l#l#o#w#s# #t#h#e# #a#i#r# #p#r#e#s#s#u#r#e# #b#o#t#h# #b#e#h#i#n#d# #a#n#d# #i#n# #f#r#o#n#t# #of the constriction to be relatively equal. This feature generally divides the sound system into sonorants ([+sonorant] sounds), which are nasals, approximants, glides, and vowels, and obstruents ([-sonorant] sounds), which are oral stops, fricatives, and affricates.[� vocalic]Vowels and syllabic liquids.Use of major class features�ObstruentsVowelsGlidesLiquidsNasals[consonantal]+���--++[vocalic] -+---[sonorant]-++++Examples�����p b z�#########################################�##i#�#�##j# #w##l# #r##m# #n## ###L#a#r#y#n#g#e#a#l# #f#e#a#t#u#r#e#s#�##�#�#�#�# #T#h#e#s#e# #f#e#a#t#u#r#e#s# #r#e#p#r#e#s#e#n#t# #l#a#r#y#n#g#e#a#l# #s#t#a#t#e#s#.##[#�# #v#o#i#c#e#]# #�#�#�#�# #S#o#u#n#d#s# #w#h#i#c#h# #a#r#e# #[#+#v#o#i#c#e#]# #a#r#e# #t#h#o#s#e# #w#h#i#c#h# #a#r#e# #p#r#o#d#u#c#e#d# #w#i#t#h# #v#i#b#r#a#t#i#o#n# #o#f# #t#h#e# #v#o#c#a#l# #f#o#l#d#s#.##[#�# #s#p#r#e#a#d# #g#l#o#t#t#i#s#]# #�#�#�#�# #S#o#u#n#d#s# #w#h#i#c#h# #a#r#e# #[#+#s#p#r#e#a#d# #g#l#o#t#t#i#s#]# #a#r#e# #those produced with a glottal configuration that produces audible glottal friction. For example, the aspirated stops in English are [+spread glottis][� constricted glottis]���� Sounds which are [+constricted glottis] are those which are produced with the vocal folds drawn together and tense.#Place features����� These features represent place of articulation.[� labial]Any sound articulated with one or both lips is [+ labial.�Examples�[p] [b] [f] [v] [w].[� round]Sounds that are [+ round] are made by p#r#o#t#r#u#d#i#n#g# #t#h#e# #l#i#p#s#.#�#E#x#a#m#p#l#e#s#�#[#w#]##[#�# #c#o#r#o#n#a#l#]##A#n#y# #s#o#u#n#d# #a#r#t#i#c#u#l#a#t#e#d# #w#i#t#h# #t#h#e# #t#o#n#g#u#e# #t#i#p# #o#r# #b#l#a#d#e# #r#a#i#s#e#d# #i#s# #[#+# #c#o#r#o#n#a#l#]#.#�#E#x#a#m#p#l#e#s#�#[#t#]# #[#d#]# #[#�#]# #[#�#]# #[#s#]# #[#z#]# #[#t#+"]# #[#d#�#]# #[#+"]# #[#�#]# #[#n#]# #[#l#]# #[#�#]###[#�# #a#n#t#e#r#i#o#r#]##A#n#y# #s#o#u#n#d# #a#r#t#i#c#u#l#a#t#e#d# #i#n# #f#r#o#n#t# #o#f# #t#h#e# #a#l#v#e#o#p#a#l#a#t#a#l# #r#e#g#i#o#n# #i#s# #c#o#n#s#i#d#e#r#e#d# #t#o# #b#e# #[#+# #a#n#t#e#r#i#o#r#]#.#E#x#a#m#p#l#e#s#�#[#p#]# #[#b#]# #[#t#]# #[#d#]# #[#s#]# #[#z#]# #[#�#]# #[#�#]##[#�# #s#t#r#i#d#e#n#t#]##T#h#e# #'#n#o#i#s#y#'# #f#r#i#c#a#t#i#v#e#s# #a#n#d# #a#f#f#r#i#c#a#t#e#s# #o#n#l#y#.#�#E#x#a#m#p#l#e#s#�#[#s#]# #[#z#]# #[#+"]# #[#�#]# #[#t#+"]# #[#d#�#]####D#o#r#s#a#l# #f#e#a#t#u#r#e#s#�##�#�#�#�# #T#h#e#s#e# #f#e#a#t#u#r#e#s# #r#e#p#r#e#s#e#n#t# #t#h#e# #p#l#a#c#e#m#e#n#t# #o#f# #t#h#e# #b#o#d#y# #o#f# #t#h#e# #t#o#n#g#u#e#.##[#�# high]Sounds produced with the tongue body raised are considered [+ high] (both vowels and consonants).�Examples:�[i:] [u:] [k] [g][� low]Vowels made with the tongue body distinctly lowered from a central position in the oral cavity are�� [+ low].�Examples:�[�] [Y:][� back]Any sound articulated behind the palatal region in the oral cavity.�Examples:�[u:] []:] [k] [g][� tense]Expresses the tense lax distinctions among vowels.[� reduced] ##############################################################O#n#l#y# #t#h#e# #s#c#h#w#a# #(#[##"]#)# #i#s# #[#+# #r#e#d#u#c#e#d#]####M#a#n#n#e#r# #f#e#a#t#u#r#e#s#�##�#�#�#�# #T#h#e#s#e# #f#e#a#t#u#r#e#s# #r#e#p#r#e#s#e#n#t# #m#a#n#n#e#r# #o#f# #a#r#t#i#c#u#l#a#t#i#o#n#.##[#�#c#o#n#t#i#n#u#a#n#t#]# #S#o#u#n#d#s# #w#h#i#c#h# #a#r#e# #[#+# #c#o#n#t#i#n#u#a#n#t#]# #a#r#e# #t#h#o#s#e# #w#h#i#c#h# #a#r#e# #p#r#o#d#u#c#e#d# #w#i#t#h#o#u#t# #a# #c#e#n#t#r#a#l# #b#l#o#c#k#a#g#e# #i#n# #t#h#e# #v#o#c#a#l# #t#r#a#c#t#.# #F#o#r# #e#x#a#m#p#l#e#,# #f#r#i#c#a#t#i#v#e#s# #h#a#ve a central constriction, but there is no complete blockage of the air, and they are therefore, [+ continuant].[�nasal]Sounds which are [+nasal] are produced with nasal airflow. [�lateral]Sounds which are [+lateral] are produced with airflow passing through one or both sides of the tongue, which is in contact with the central part of the oral cavity.##LESSON 6:SYLLABLE STRUCTURESyllables and their parts�A syllable is a unit of sound composed of a central peak of sonority (usually a vowel), and the consonants that cluster around this central peak. Words can be cut up into units called syllables. Humans seem to need syllables as a way of segmenting the stream of speech and giving it a rhythm of strong and weak beats, as we hear in music. Syllables don't serve any meaning-signalling function in language; they exist only to make speech easier for the brain to process. A word contains at least one syllable.Most speakers of English have no trouble dividing a word up into its component syllables. Sometimes how a particular word is divided might vary from one individual to another, but a division is always easy and always possible. Here are some words divided into their component syllables (a period is used to mark the end of a syllable):-�tomato�=�to.ma.to�#�window�=�win.dow�#�supercalifragilisticexpialidocious�=su.per.ca.li.fra.gi.lis.ti.cex.pi.a.li.do.c ious�(some people might put some of the periods in different places in this word).Syllables have internal structure: they can be divided into parts. The parts are�onset�andrhyme; within the rhyme we find the�nucleus�and�coda. Not all syllables have all parts; the smallest possible syllable contains a nucleus only. A syllable may or may not have an onset and a coda.Onset: the beginning sounds of the syllable; the ones preceding the nucleus. These are always consonants in English. The nucleus is a vowel in most cases, although the consonants [ r ], [ l ], [ m ], [ n ], and the velar nasal (the 'ng' sound) can also be the nucleus of a syllable. In the following words, the onset is in bold; the rest underlined.read�#flop�#strapIf a word contains more than one syllable, each syllable will have the usual syllable parts: win.dow�#to.ma.to�#pre.pos.te.rous�#fun.da.men.talRhyme�(or�rime): the rest of the syllable, after the onset (the underlined portions of the words above). The rhyme can also be divided up:Rhyme = nucleus + codaThe nucleus, as the term suggests, is the core or essential part of a syllable. A nucleus must be present in order for a syllable to be present. Syllable nuclei are most often highly 'sonorant' or resonant sounds, that can be relatively loud and carry a clear pitch level. In English and most other languages, most syllable nuclei are vowels. In English, in certain cases, the liquids [ l r ] and nasals [ m n ] and the velar nasal usually spelled 'ng' can also be syllable nuclei.Parts DescriptionOptionalityOnsetInitial segment of a syllableOptionalRhymeCore of a syllable, consisting of a nucleus and coda (see below)Obligatory� NucleusCentral segment of a syllableObligatory� CodaClosing segment of a syllableOptionalThe syllable structure analysis of the words 'read', 'flop', 'strap' and 'window' are as follows (IPA symbols are used to show the sounds in the word/syllable): read�= one syllableOnset = [ r ]Rhyme = [ id ] (within the rhyme:)- Nucleus = [ i ]�#- Coda = [ d ]flop�= one syllableOnset = [ f l ]Rhyme = [ a p ]- Nucleus = [ a ]�#- Coda = [ p ]window�= 2 syllablesFirst syllable: [wIn]Onset = [ w ] Rhyme = [ I n ]- Nucleus = [ I ]�#- Coda = [ n ]Second syllable: [ d o ]Onset = [ d ]Rhyme = [ o ]- Nucleus = [ o ]�#- (This syllable has no coda)Linguists often use tree diagrams to illustrate syllable structure.# INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.cce1.udn.vn/soanthao/rte/my_documents/my_files/pms6.1.JPG" \* MERGEFORMATINET ### ################################################################################ ################################################################################ ###############################'#F#l#o#p#'#,# #f#o#r# #e#x#a#m#p#l#e#,# #w#o#u#l#d# #l#o#o#k# #l#i#k#e# #t#h#i#s# #(#t#h#e# #w#o#r#d# #a#p#p#e#a#r#s# #i#n# #I#P#A# #s#y#m#b#o#l#s#,# #n#o#t# #E#n#g#l#i#s#h# #s#p#e#l#l#i#n#g#)#.# #'#�#'# #=# #'#s#y#l#l#a#b#l#e#'#;# #'#O#'# #=# #'#o#n#s#e#t#'#;# #'#R#'# #=# #'#r#h#y#m#e#'#;# #'#N#'# #=# #'#n#u#c#l#e#u#s#'#;# #'#C#'# #=# #'#c#o#d#a#'#.# #T#h#e# #s#y#l#l#a#b#l#e# #n#o#d#e# #a#t# #t#h#e# #t#o#p# #o#f# #t#h#e# #t#r#e#e# #b#r#a#n#c#h#e#s# #i#n#t#o# #O#n#s#e#t# #a#n#d# #R#h#y#m#e#;# #t#h#e# #O#n#set node branches because it contains two consonants, [ f ] and [ l ]. The Rhyme node branches because this syllable has both a nucleus and a coda.# INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.cce1.udn.vn/soanthao/rte/my_documents/my_files/pms6.2.JPG" \* MERGEFORMATINET ####Liquids and nasals as syllable nuclei�The English liquids [���l ] and the nasals [ m n ] can be the nuclei of syllables under certain conditions. [ l ] can be a nucleus as easily as a vowel. For example, the words 'table', 'little', both have [ l ] as the nucleus; in other words, there is no vowel in the pronunciation of these syllables.When one of these sounds is a syllable nucleus, this is shown in transcription by putting a very short vertical line under the IPA symbol:�#������������������� [ r l m n ]#��������������������� ' '� '�� '�#In terms of consonants and vowels, the following words represent the following structures:VC#up#an#inCV#my#hoe#so CCV#pry#grow#freeCCCV#screw#spray#strayVCC#old#and#inkVCCC#Olds#ants#amps CVCCC#test#tenths#lungedCVCCCC#thirsts#texts#worldsCVC#bed#set#cap CCVC#bred#dread#stoneCVCC#bald#sand#huntCCVCC#brand#trains#swings CCCVC#strut#squat#sprainCCCVCC#struts#squats#sprainedCCVCCC#slurps#prints#flirts CCCVCCC#scrimps#sprints#squelched#Phonotactic constraints�All languages except sign languages use sequences of phones to make words. No languages allow sounds to combine freely. That is, there are always constraints on what phones any particular phone can precede and follow. These constraints are calledphonotactic constraints. The sum total of all the phonotactic constraints of a language is called its�phonotactics.o In any syllable-internal sequence of a nasal and a stop, the nasal and the stop must have the same place of articulation:Actual ImpossiblePossiblehand*hamdhanttaunt*taumttaundpunk*pumkpungo In any 2-consonant onset, the second consonant must be a sonorant.ActualImpossibleplease*ptease proud*psoudpure*pshuretwin*tdintrust*tpustqueen*kseanclean*csheancream*cteamo In any 3-consonant cluster in an onset, the first consonant must be [s]:�splash, strong, spew�.�#o In any 3-consonant cluster in an onset, the second consonant must be a voiceless stop [p,t,k]:�splash, strong, spew , extreme.Initial consonant clusters in English containing a voiceless stopLabial + sonorant Coronal + sonorantVelar + sonorant[pl]����� please#[pr]���� proud#[pw]�� ____#[pj]����� pure#[spl]�� splat#[spr]�� spring#[spw]� ____#[spj]��� spew [tl]���� ____#[tr]���� trade#[tw]�� twin#[tj]���� tune#[stl]�� ____#[str]�� strip#[stw] ____#[stj]�� stew[kl]����� clean#[kr]����� cream#[kw]��� queen#[kj]����� cute#[skl]��� sclerosis#[skr]��� scrap#[skw]� squeak#[skj]��� skewer#Assignment 2:������# HYPERLINK "http://www.cce1.udn.vn/ch/ktra.aspx? bh=405" #Click here#�to accomplish Assignment 2.## LESSON 6: SYLLABUS STRUCTURE Choose the best answer. Click the letter that corresponds to the answer you have chosen. 1. The following statement describes which aspect of vowel classification?"Vowels are classified in terms of how much space there is between the tongue and the roof of the mouth". A. tongue backness B. tongue height C. lip rounding D. vowel length 2. In making these vowels: /i/, / i:/, /u/, /u:/ space between the tongue and the roof of the mouth is....... A. relatively wide B. very wide C. relatively narrow D. very narrow 3. The sounds /i/ and /�/ are examples of ... A. long vowels B. rounded vowels C. unrounded vowels D. back vowels 4. The sounds /i:/ and /u:/ are examples of ... . A. tense vowels B. lax vowels C. back vowels D. short vowels 5. Which of the following pairs of words have the same diphthong? A. mayor - taylor B. pure - future C. bourse - mature D. height - take 6. Which of the following pairs of words have different diphthongs? A. aisle dyke B. ace - gaol C. dough - plough D. mare - prayer 7. Which of the following word lists has the same vowel? A. could, routine, source, journal B. should, through, rule, route C. many, fat, act, sad D. quay, each, people, key 8. Which of the following word lists has different vowels? A. sought, tough, cough, could B. push, wolf, should, pull C. suit, shoe, rule, route D. carpet, bath, hearth, aunt 9. In the following words which underlined letter is pronounced /i:/? A. machine B. minute C. tick D. win 10. Which of the following is the description of the sound /o/? A. A central, mid, long, tense central vowel B. A long, tense, rounded vowel C. A front, short, lax, unrounded vowel D. A short, lax, open and slightly rounded 11. Which of the following is the description of the sound /i:/? A. A front, close (high), long, tense, unrounded vowel B. A more retracted front, short, lax, unrounded vowel C. A front, short, lax, unrounded vowel D. A lowest, front, short, lax, unrounded vowel 12. A physical language sound, measurable by acoustic instruments is called ... A. a phoneme B. a phone C. an allophone D. a minimal pair 13. Allophones are ... A. language sounds as they are perceived by a speaker B. physical language sounds C. in complementary distribution D. similar to phonemes 14. A phoneme is put between .... A. square brackets B. slash brackets C. square boxes D. round boxes 15. A phonetic transcription is also called a.... A. broad transcription B. narrow transcription C. phonemic transcription D. detail transcription 16. Which of the following statements is NOT correct? A. Phonemes are abstract sounds stored in our memory. B. Phonemes vary from language to language. C. You never hear same phone twice. D. Allophones are unpredictable. 17. Phonemes are ... A. organizable B. predictable C. non-contrastive D. concrete phonetic segments 18. Complementary distribution is an indication that the sounds in question are ... A. phonemes B. allophones of the same phoneme C. phones D. minimal pairs 19. Contrastive distribution is an indication that the two sounds in question are ... A. different phonemes B. allophones of the same phoneme C. different phones D. similar phonemes 20. The substitutability of one sound for another in a given environment, with no change in the word�s meaning is called ... A. free variation B. a minimal pair C. distribution D. a near minimal pair 21. Pairs of words which differ in one sound only and have different meanings are called ... A. near minimal pairs B. minimal pairs C. different pairs D. close pairs 22. Which of the following is NOT a minimal pair? A. cat - sat B. sad - sat C. rat - sad D...