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www.downloadslide.net P A R T T H R E E Group Behavior and Interpersonal Influence 10. GROUPS AND TEAMS 11. MANAGING CONFLICT AND NEGOTIATIONS 12. POWER AND POLITICS © Shutterstock/Rawpixel.com, RF Coming together is a beginning; keeping together is progress; working together is success. Henry Ford www.downloadslide.net www.downloadslide.net C H A P T E R T E N Groups and Teams Learning Objectives After completing Chapter 10, you should be able to: • Summarize the model of group formation and development. • Compare the differences between formal and informal groups. • Understand the reasons people form groups. © Purestock/Superstock, RF group Two or more individuals interacting to accomplish a common goal. team Group of individuals with complementary skills that share a common purpose, responsibility, and accountability for achieving performance goals. • Explain the five stages of group formation. • Describe the major characteristics of groups. • Discuss relevant criteria for group effectiveness. • Differentiate among the different types of teams. The existence of groups can alter a person’s motivation or needs and can influence the behavior of people in an organizational setting. Organizational behavior is more than simply the sum of the behavior of separate individuals, but rather a much more complex phenomenon, a very important part of which is the group. This chapter provides a model for understanding the nature of groups in organizations. It explores various types of groups, the reasons for their formation, their characteristics, and some end results of group membership. It also focuses on a special form of groups—teams—that is playing an increasingly larger role in current organizational processes. The current understanding of teams builds on theories, research findings, and applications of groups and their formation, maturity, and effectiveness. Groups and teams are not the same. A group is two or more individuals interacting with each other to accomplish a common goal. Teams are mature groups that share a common purpose, responsibility, and accountability for achieving performance goals. Teams start out as groups, but not all groups become mature and interdependent or teams. Teams and groups share many common characteristics. First, as already noted, they can be formed when two or more individuals interact. Second, both teams and groups provide structure for the work and interaction of their members. Third, their members can perform specific technical, leadership, problem-solving, and emotional roles. Last, members of groups and teams share a common goal(s). Exhibit 10.1 presents some of the differences between groups and teams. Depth of commitment distinguishes groups and teams. Groups are accountable to a manager and are often randomly formed (e.g., hiring different people over time), resulting in a varied mix of skills. Teams are internally accountable to one another, and each member’s skills complement those of the other team members. Group members create and share norms of performance and behavior. On the other hand, teams share a culture, a set of rituals and processes, and a philosophy in working together. Teams over time develop synergy or a special energy by leveraging the creativity, actions, and behaviors of members. A team’s work and performance are said to be synergistic, or greater than the work and performance of individuals working alone on the team. 247 www.downloadslide.net Reality Check How much do you know about groups and teams? 1. A(n) is a group of subordinates who report to one particular manager. a. informal group b. command group c. task group d. formal group 2. Assigning group members to a secretive research and development project that operates outside of normal company operations in order to create innovative products is known as a . a. stealth operation b. skunkworks c. quiet development zone d. basement barrier 3. In a manufacturing setting, employees whose performance is similar to the standard performance of other employees (i.e., group norm) who perform similar tasks are said to be operating in the . a. zone of acceptance b. zone of accomplishment c. zone of goal achievement d. zone of agreement 4. Making a group more homogeneous and smaller are two steps that can group members. a. increase conflict among b. decrease the amount of communication between c. have no effect on d. increase group cohesion among 5. In a work setting, an employee who produces more than anyone else in the group is known as a . a. zone hitter b. rate-buster c. norm expander d. None of the above (a–c) are correct. For example, the now famous animation studio Pixar was so cash-strapped during its early years that it almost went out of business.1 What saved the company? A six-person team at Pixar created several high-quality short films (one was awarded an Oscar in 1988) and commercials that brought in $2.1 million in revenue and attracted the attention of executives at Disney, ultimately leading to a joint venture between the two companies in 1991.2 Teams from both companies joined forces and released the blockbuster film Toy Story, which was the highest-grossing film in 1995 earning $362 million worldwide. Then, in 2006, Disney purchased Pixar for $7.4 billion but has been careful to preserve the creative team environment that has helped the Disney and Pixar partnership create such popular animated films as Toy Story 3, Inside Out, Finding Nemo, Up, The Incredibles, Cars, and Monsters University.3 Another example of synergistic teamwork and performance is the trauma team at Ben Taub General Hospital, Houston’s busiest emergency room that treats more than 100,000 patients a year.4 Physicians, nurses, aides, technicians, and specialists work on teams to treat life-and-death cases. Trauma teams are committed to saving lives under serious 248 www.downloadslide.net Chapter 10 Groups and Teams 249 EXHIBIT 10.1 Comparison of Groups and Teams Dimension Goals Accountability Skill levels Performance evaluation Culture Formal Work Group Works on common goals To manager Random By manager Marked by change and conflict Performance outcomes Positive, neutral, or negative Definition of success By manager’s aspirations Team Total commitment to common goals To team members and team leader Complementary By team members and team leader Based on collaboration and goal attainment Synergistic or greater than sum of members’ contributions By members’ and team leader’s aspirations circumstances. Each member brings a special set of skills to the trauma patient. There is no time for conflict, since collaboration is essential for lives to be saved. Members of the trauma team depend on each other and are accountable to each other. As a team, the Ben Taub unit has acquired a local and worldwide reputation for accomplishing exceptional results in saving patients. The synergistic results could be accomplished only by a committed and dedicated team of professionals.5 The trauma team is an actual example of the distinct characteristics and differences presented in Exhibit 10.1. Not all teams have such crucial life-and-death circumstances regularly facing them. Also, to effectively utilize teams in organizations, managers and leaders need to understand the distinctions illustrated in Exhibit 10.1. The Nature of Groups Groups are a pervasive part of modern life. All of us have been—and are—members of many different groups—school groups, work groups, family groups, social groups, religious groups. There are small groups and large groups, permanent groups and temporary groups, formal groups and informal groups. Some groups are successful, some are not. Some groups bring out the best in their members, while others may bring out the worst. These are just a few of the multitude of ways in which groups may be characterized. As indicated earlier, the following definition of groups will be used throughout this chapter: two or more individuals interacting with each other to accomplish a common goal. One way of viewing this definition is to think of it in terms of specifying three minimum requirements that must be met for a group to exist. The first requirement deals with size. There must be two or more individuals for there to be a group. One person does not constitute a group. Note that in this definition, while there is a minimum size requirement, there is no maximum. The second requirement specifies that there must be some form of exchange or communication between these individuals. That is, they must interact with each other in some manner. We usually think of interaction between group members as occurring in a face-toface verbal exchange, but that does not have to be the case. In nominal groups (discussed in Chapter 14), for example, the members might never speak with one another; their only interactions are typically in writing. Due to busy schedules, a student group may only meet face-to-face a few times during a semester; but its members may speak by phone, and www.downloadslide.net 250 Part Three Group Behavior and Interpersonal Influence EXHIBIT 10.2 A Model of Group Formation and Development Reasons for Group Formation Stages of Group Development Some Group Characteristics End Results Formal • Command • Task • Team • Security need satisfaction • Forming • Composition • Performance • Storming • Status hierarchy • Satisfaction Informal • Interest • Friendship • Esteem need satisfaction • Norming • Roles • Development • Performing • Norms • Adjourning • Leadership Types of Groups • Social need satisfaction • Proximity and attraction • Group goals • Cohesiveness • Economic reasons Feedback exchange ideas, research findings, rough drafts of their research paper or presentation via e-mail or other electronic communications multiple times until the project is complete. Though the students are working remotely, they are still a group. The final requirement in our definition of groups is that of attempting to accomplish a common goal. If there is no common goal or purpose, there is no group by our definition. A common goal is a goal toward which individual members are willing to work. For example, a common goal of most sports teams is to achieve a high enough level of teamwork to win the game. Yes, a team “star” can make a substantial contribution to that victory, but it generally takes a team to win a game. For example, before he led the Denver Broncos to victory in Super Bowl 50 in February 2016, Peyton Manning added more statistics to his NFL legacy: most career passing touchdowns, most career passing yards, the single season touchdown record, and most wins (including playoffs). Despite these amazing numbers, it was Manning’s teammates—particularly Von Miller and the Broncos defense—who helped him secure a second Super Bowl ring before announcing his retirement from the NFL.6 Although every group is different, possessing its own unique attributes and dynamics, it is also true that in many important ways groups tend to display similar patterns of evolution. Exhibit 10.2 presents a model of group formation and development that we will follow in discussing this important organizational behavior and management topic. The model suggests that the end results of group activity are shaped by a number of antecedent variables, each category of which we will examine in this chapter. Each segment of the model can (and, in reality, does) influence each of the other segments. Types of Groups An organization has technical requirements that arise from its stated goals. The accomplishment of these goals requires that certain tasks be performed and that employees be assigned to perform these tasks. As a result, most employees will be members of a group based on www.downloadslide.net Chapter 10 Groups and Teams 251 formal group A group formed by management to accomplish the goals of the organization. their position in the organization. These are formal groups. Whenever individuals associate on a fairly continuous basis, there is a tendency for groups to form whose activities may be different from those required by the organization. These are informal groups. Both formal groups and informal groups, it will be shown, exhibit the same general characteristics. informal group Formal Groups A group formed by individuals and developed around common interests and friendships rather than around an organizational goal. command group A group of subordinates who report to one particular manager. The command group is specified by the formal organization chart. task group A group of individuals who are working as a unit to complete a project or job task. The demands and processes of the organization lead to the formation of different types of groups. Specifically, at least two types of formal groups exist: command and task. Command Group The command group is specified by the organization chart and is made up of the subordinates who report directly to a given supervisor. The authority relationship between a department manager and the supervisors, or between a senior nurse and her subordinates, is an example of a command group. Task Group A task group comprises the employees who work together to complete a particular task or project. For example, when an emergency call comes in to put out a warehouse blaze, firefighters in a city fire department are trained to deal with the situation by performing a variety of tasks. These activities create a situation in which several firefighters must communicate and coordinate with one another to address the emergency situation. These required tasks and interactions facilitate the formation of a task group.7 Another example would be the nurses assigned to duty in the emergency room of a hospital; they constitute a task group, since certain activities (e.g., taking a medical history, triage assessment, assisting the physician, comforting the patient’s family, etc.) are required when a patient needs to be treated. Informal Groups interest group A group that forms because of some special topic of interest. Generally, when the interest declines or a goal has been achieved, the group disbands. friendship group An informal group that is established in the workplace because of some common characteristic of its members and that may extend the interaction of its members to include activities outside the workplace. Informal groups are natural groupings of people in work environments in response to social needs. In other words, informal groups are not deliberately created; they evolve naturally. Two specific types of informal groups are interest and friendship. The boundaries between these two types of groups often become blurred. For example, assume a group of employees from different departments of a company respond to a volunteer opportunity to serve the homeless at a nearby soup kitchen. This interest group evolves into a friendship group as a result of this bonding experience. Interest Groups Individuals who may not be members of the same command group, task group, or team may come together to achieve some mutual objective. Examples of interest groups include employees grouping together to present a unified front to management for more benefits and waitresses “pooling” their tips. Note that the objectives of such groups are not related to those of the organization, but are specific to each group. Friendship Groups Many groups form because the members have something in common such as age, political beliefs, or ethnic background. These friendship groups often extend their interaction and communication to off-the-job activities. A distinction has been made between two broad classifications of groups—formal and informal. The major difference between them is that formal command and task groups and www.downloadslide.net 252 Part Three Group Behavior and Interpersonal Influence teams are designated by the formal organization as a means to an end. Informal interest and friendship groups are important for their own sake. They satisfy a basic human need for association. If employees’ affiliation patterns were documented, it would become rapidly apparent that they belong to numerous and often overlapping groups. Why so many groups exist is the question to which we turn next. Why People Form Groups As illustrated in Exhibit 10.3, there are many reasons why formal and informal groups form.8 One of the most compelling reasons people join groups is because they believe membership in a particular group will help them to satisfy one or more important needs. Social needs, for example, can be satisfied through groups that provide a vehicle for members to interact with one another. Indeed, it is difficult to imagine being able to fulfill general social needs without participating in at least some groups. Security needs may be partially met by membership in a group that acts as a buffer between employees and the organizational system. Without such a group, an individual may feel alone in facing organizational demands. This “aloneness” leads to a degree of insecurity that can be offset by group membership. Esteem needs may be partially met by belonging to a high-status or prestige group in which membership is difficult to obtain. An example would be the million-dollar roundtable in the life insurance business, or an honors organization in college. Proximity and attraction are two related reasons people form groups. Proximity involves the physical distance between employees performing a job. Walking distance, rather than straight-line distance, is a better predictor of the amount of interaction that will occur. It is much easier to interact with a co-worker 10 yards away and separated by two desks than it is to interact with someone 1 yard away but separated by a wall. Attraction designates the attraction of people to each other because of perceptual, attitudinal, performance, or motivational similarity. Proximity makes it easier to determine areas of common attraction. Thus, both of these factors work together to facilitate group formation. Group goals, if clearly understood, can be reasons people are drawn to a group. For example, an individual may join a group that meets after work to become familiar with a new personal computer system. Assume that this system is to be implemented in the work organization over the next year. The person who voluntarily joins the after-hours group believes that learning the new system is a necessary and important goal for employees. EXHIBIT 10.3 Five Reasons Why People Form Groups Need satisfaction Economic benefits Proximity Goals Attraction www.downloadslide.net Chapter 10 Groups and Teams 253 Finally, in many cases groups form because individuals believe they can derive greater economic benefits from their jobs if they organize. For example, individuals working at different points on an assembly line may be paid on a group-incentive basis where the production of the group determines the wages of each member. By working and cooperating as a group, the workers may obtain higher economic benefits. Or executives in a corporation may form a group to review executive compensation in hopes of increasing their own economic payoffs. Whatever the circumstances, the group members have a common interest—increased economic benefits—that leads to group affiliation. Stages of Group Development Groups learn just as individuals do. The performance of a group depends both on individual learning and on how well the members learn to work with one another. For example, a new product committee formed for the purpose of developing a response to a competitor may evolve into a very effective team, with the interests of the company being most important. However, it may also be very ineffective if its members are more concerned about their individual departmental goals than about developing a response to a competitor. This section describes some general stages through which groups evolve and points out the sequential development process involved.9 One widely cited model of group development assumes that groups proceed through as many as five stages of development: (1) forming, (2) storming, (3) norming, (4) performing, and (5) adjourning.10 Although critics of this model suggest that other factors such as time and deadlines are more valid predictors of group functioning, the five-stage model remains influential.11 Forming The first stage of group development is forming, and it is characterized by uncertainty (and, frequently, confusion) about the purpose, structure, and leadership of the group. Activities tend to focus on group members’ efforts to understand and define their objectives, roles, and assignments within the group. Patterns of interaction among group members are tried out and either discarded or adopted, at least temporarily. The more diverse the group is, the more difficult it is to maneuver through this stage and the longer it takes. That is why this is a particularly sensitive stage in the formation of multicultural groups. Generally, this stage is complete when individuals begin to view themselves as part of a group. Student group example: After being assigned a semester-long group project by their professor, newly formed student groups meet to figure out how to get started on the project, who will do what task, etc. Storming The storming stage of group development tends to be marked with conflict and confrontation. This generally emotionally intense stage may involve competition among members for desired assignments and disagreements over appropriate task-related behaviors and responsibilities. A particularly important part of storming can involve redefinition of the groups’ specific tasks and overall goals. Individually, group members are likely to begin to decide the extent to which they like the group tasks and their degree of commitment to them. While members may accept the group at one level, at another level they may resist the control the group imposes on them. Some group members may begin to withdraw during storming, making this stage a particularly www.downloadslide.net 254 Part Three Group Behavior and Interpersonal Influence critical one for group survival and effectiveness. It is essential that the conflict that typifies storming be managed, as opposed to being suppressed. Suppression of conflict at this point is likely to create negative effects that can seriously hinder group functioning in later stages. Student group example: Group members argue over what to do about one of the five team members who missed two early (and important) meetings and deadlines. Norming While storming is marked by conflict and confrontation, norming is characterized by cooperation and collaboration. It is also the stage where group cohesion begins significant development. There tends to be an open exchange of information, acceptance of differences of opinion, and active attempts to achieve mutually agreed-upon goals and objectives. There is a strong degree of mutual attraction and commitment and feelings of group identity and camaraderie. Behavioral norms are established and accepted by the completion of this stage, as are leadership and other roles in the group. (The specific important impact of norms on group functioning is addressed in a subsequent section on group characteristics.) Student group example: Students have agreed upon key goals and objectives and have developed a true sense of “teamwork”; the leader is accepted and members have assumed their individual roles. Performing The fourth, and what may be the final stage, is performing. Performing is that stage where the group is fully functional. The group structure is set, and the roles of each member are understood and accepted. The group focuses its energies, efforts, and commitments on accomplishing the tasks it has accepted. For some groups, this stage marks the attainment of a level of effectiveness that will remain more or less constant. For others, the process of learning and development will be ongoing so that group effectiveness and efficiency continue. In the former case, group performance will be maintained at a level sufficient to ensure survival; in the latter case, the group will record increasingly higher levels of achievement. Which way any particular group will go will depend on a number of variables; in particular, how successfully the group completed earlier development stages. Student group example: Group members and the group leader perform their tasks effectively and make a great deal of progress toward achieving their project goals and objectives. Adjourning The adjourning stage involves the termination of group activities. Many groups, of course, are permanent and never reach the adjourning stage. For temporary groups, however, such as committees, project groups, task forces, and similar entities, this stage includes disbandment. Customary task activities are complete and the group focuses on achieving closure. This stage can be marked by very positive emotions centering on successful task accomplishment and achievement. It may also be a source of feelings of loss, disappointment, or even anger. The latter may be especially true in the case of permanent groups that fail to survive because of organizational downsizing, merging, or bankruptcy. Increasingly, adjournment is becoming an expected stage of group development, however. Many organizations are relying on temporary groups for problem-solving tasks and product development. Hewlett-Packard and 3M are two examples of companies using temporary groups. At these organizations, project teams may have a life cycle ranging from less than a month to several years.