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PowerPoint Presentation to Accompany Management, 10/e John R. Schermerhorn, Jr. Chapter 13: Motivation Theory and Practice Prepared by: Jim LoPresti University of Colorado, Boulder Published by: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Planning Ahead — Chapter 13 Study Questions     How do individual needs influence motivation? What are the process theories of motivation? What role does reinforcement play in motivation? What are the alternative approaches to job design? Management 10/e - Chapter 13 2 Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?  Types of content theories:  Hierarchy  ERG of needs theory theory  Two-factor  Acquired theory needs theory Management 10/e - Chapter 13 3 Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?  Motivation and individual needs  Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.  Needs  Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an individual.  Explain workplace behavior and attitudes.  Create tensions that influence attitudes and behavior.  Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need satisfaction. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 4 Figure 13.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 5 Study Question 2: What are the different types of individual needs?  Hierarchy of needs theory  Deficit  principle A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior.  Progression  principle A need at one level does not become activated until the next lower-level need is satisfied. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 6 Study Question 2: What are the different types of individual needs?  Hierarchy of needs theory     Developed by Abraham Maslow. Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace behavior and attitudes. Lower-order needs:  Physiological, safety, and social needs.  Desires for physical and social well being. Higher-order needs:  Esteem and self-actualization needs.  Desire for psychological growth and development. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 7 Study Question 2: What are the different types of individual needs?  ERG theory  Developed by Clayton Alderfer.  Three need levels: Existence needs — desires for physiological and material well-being.  Relatedness needs — desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.  Growth needs — desires for continued psychological growth and development.  Management 10/e - Chapter 13 8 Study Question 2: What are the different types of individual needs?  ERG theory  Any/all needs can influence behavior at one time.  Frustration-regression  principle. An already satisfied lower-level need becomes reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 9 Study Question 2: What are the different types of individual needs?  Two-factor theory  Developed by Frederick Herzberg.  Hygiene factors: Elements of the job context.  Sources of job dissatisfaction.   Satisfier factors: Elements of the job content.  Sources of job satisfaction and motivation.  Management 10/e - Chapter 13 10 Figure 13.2 Herzberg’s two-factor theory. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 11 Study Question 2: What are the different types of individual needs?  Acquired needs theory  Developed by David McClelland.  People acquire needs through their life experiences.  Needs that are acquired: Need for Achievement (nAch)  Need for Power (nPower)  Need for Affiliation (nAff)  Management 10/e - Chapter 13 12 Study Question 2: What are the different types of individual needs?  Acquired needs theory  Need  for Achievement (nAch) Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.  People high in (nAch) prefer work that: Involves individual responsibility for results.  Involves achievable but challenging goals.  Provides feedback on performance.  Management 10/e - Chapter 13 13 Study Question 2: What are the different types of individual needs?  Acquired needs theory  Need for Power (nPower) Desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for other people.  Personal power versus social power.   People that: high in (nPower) prefer work Involves control over other persons.  Has an impact on people and events.  Brings public recognition and attention.  Management 10/e - Chapter 13 14 Study Question 2: What are the different types of individual needs?  Acquired needs theory  Need  for Affiliation (nAff) Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other persons.  People high in (nAff) prefer work that:  Involves interpersonal relationships.  Provides for companionship  Brings social approval. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 15 Study Question 2: What are the different types of individual needs?  Questions for summarizing the content theories of motivation: How many different individual needs are there? Can a work outcome or reward satisfy more than one need? Is there a hierarchy of needs? How important are the various needs? Management 10/e - Chapter 13 16 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Process theories of motivation …    How people make choices to work hard or not. Choices are based on:  Individual preferences.  Available rewards.  Possible work outcomes. Types of process theories:    Equity theory. Expectancy theory. Goal-setting theory. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 17 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Equity theory  Developed by J. Stacy Adams.  When people believe that they have been treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation.  Perceived inequity.  Perceived equity. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 18 Figure 13.3 Equity theory and the role of social comparison. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 19 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Equity theory  People respond to perceived negative inequity by changing …  Work inputs.  Rewards received.  Comparison points.  Situation. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 20 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Managerial implications of equity theory—  Underpaid people experience anger.  Overpaid people experience guilt.  Perceptions of rewards determine motivational outcomes.  Negative consequences of equity comparisons should be minimized, if not eliminated.  Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source of equity controversies in the workplace.  Gender equity.  Comparable worth. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 21 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Expectancy theory  Developed by Victor Vroom.  Key expectancy theory variables: Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance.  Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards.  Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes.  Management 10/e - Chapter 13 22 Figure 13.4 Elements in the expectancy theory of motivation. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 23 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Expectancy theory  Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion: M=ExIxV  If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 24 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Managerial implications of expectancy theory—  To maximize expectancy, managers should:  Select workers with ability.  Train workers to use ability.  Support work efforts.  Clarify performance goals. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 25 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Managerial implications of expectancy theory—  To maximize instrumentality, managers should:  Clarify psychological contracts.  Communicate performance-outcome possibilities.  Identify rewards that are contingent on performance. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 26 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Managerial implications of expectancy theory—  To maximize valence in a positive direction, managers should:  Identify  Adjust individual needs. rewards to match individual needs. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 27 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Goal-setting theory  Developed by Edwin Locke.  Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly motivating.  Motivational effects of task goals:  Provide direction to people in their work.  Clarify performance expectations.  Establish a frame of reference for feedback.  Provide a foundation for behavioral selfmanagement. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 28 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Key issues and principles in the goal-setting process:  Set specific goals.  Set challenging goals.  Build goal acceptance and commitment.  Clarify goal priorities.  Provide feedback on goal accomplishment.  Reward goal accomplishment. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 29 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Goal-setting theory Participation in goal setting    unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting. management by objectives (MBO) promotes participation. when participation is not possible, workers will respond positively if supervisory trust and support exist. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 30 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Self-Efficacy Theory a person’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task Capability directly affects motivation   higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy. self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 31 Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?  Self-Efficacy Theory  Enactive mastery – person gains confidence through positive experience  Vicarious modeling – learning by observing others  Verbal persuasion – encouragement from others that one can perform a task  Emotional arousal – high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation Management 10/e - Chapter 13 32 Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?  Fundamentals of reinforcement theory Reinforcement theory focuses on the impact of external environmental consequences on behavior.  Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on future behavior.  Operant conditioning:  Developed by B.F. Skinner.  Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 33 Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?  Operant conditioning strategies:  Positive  reinforcement Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence.  Negative  reinforcement Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 34 Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?  Operant conditioning strategies:  Punishment  Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence.  Extinction  Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an pleasant consequence. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 35 Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?  Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on  Law of contingent reinforcement —  Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited.  Law of immediate reinforcement —  More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more reinforcement value it has. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 36 Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?  Guidelines for using positive reinforcement:  Clearly identify desired work behaviors.  Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards.  Inform everyone about what must be done to get rewards.  Recognize individual differences when allocating rewards.  Follow the laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 37 Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?  Guidelines for using punishment:  Tell the person what is being done wrong.  Tell the person what is being done right.  Match the punishment to the behavior.  Administer punishment in private.  Follow laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 38 Figure 13.5 Applying reinforcement strategies: case of total quality management. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 39 Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?  Schedules of reinforcement:      Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each time a desired behavior occurs. Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only periodically. Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous reinforcement. Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is more permanent. Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive reinforcement of successive approximations to it. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 40 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Job   A collection of tasks performed in support of organizational objectives. Job design  The process of creating or defining jobs by assigning specific work tasks to individuals and groups.  Jobs should be designed so that both performance and satisfaction result. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 41 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Job simplification.  Standardizing work procedures and employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks.  Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth.  Automation. Total mechanization of a job.  Most extreme form of job simplification.  Management 10/e - Chapter 13 42 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Potential advantages of job simplification:     Easier and quicker training of workers. Workers are less difficult to supervise. Workers are easier to replace. Development of expertise in doing repetitive tasks.  Potential disadvantages of job simplification:    Management 10/e - Chapter 13 Productivity suffers. Cost increases due to absenteeism/ turnover of unhappy workers. Poor performance may result from worker boredom/ alienation. 43 Figure 13.6 A continuum of job design alternatives. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 44 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Job rotation and job enlargement:  Expands job scope.  Job rotation.   Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different task assignments. Job enlargement.  Increases task variety by combining two or more tasks previously assigned to separate workers.  Horizontal loading. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 45 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Job enrichment.  Building more opportunities for satisfaction into a job by expanding its content.  Expands both job scope and job depth.  Frequently accomplished through vertical loading. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 46 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Critical psychological states: Experienced meaningfulness of work.  Experienced responsibilities for work outcomes.  Knowledge of actual results of work activities. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 47 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Core job characteristics: Skill variety.  Task identity.  Task significance.  Autonomy.  Feedback. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 48 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Moderating variables:  Growth-need  strength (GNS). People with high GNS will respond most positively to enriched jobs.  Knowledge  Context and skills. satisfactions. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 49 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Improving core job characteristics:  Form natural units of work.  Combine tasks.  Establish client relationships.  Open feedback channels.  Practice vertical loading. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 50 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Checklist for enriching jobs:  Remove controls that limit people’s discretion in their work.  Grant people authority to make decisions about their work.  Make people understand their accountability for results.  Allow people to do “whole” tasks or complete units of work.  Make performance feedback available. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 51 Figure 13.7 Job design and individual work outcomes using the core characteristics model. Source: Reprinted by permission from J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, Work Redesign (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980), p. 90. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 52 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Compressed workweek.  Any work schedule that allows a fulltime job to be completed in less than the standard 5 days of 8-hour shifts.  Benefits — more leisure time, lower commuting costs, lower absenteeism, and potentially improved performance.  Disadvantages — increased fatigue, family adjustment problems, increased scheduling problems, possible customer complaints, and union opposition. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 53 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Flexible working hours.  Any work schedule that gives employees some choice in the pattern of their daily work hours.  Core time — all employees must be at work.  Flextime — allows employees to schedule around personal and family responsibilities. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 54 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Potential benefits of flexible working hours:  People have greater autonomy in work scheduling while ensuring maintenance of work responsibilities.  Organizations can attract and retain employees who have special non-work responsibilities.  Worker morale may be improved. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 55 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Job sharing.  One full-time job is split between two or more persons.  Work sharing.  An agreement between employees to cut back their work hours to avoid layoffs or termination. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 56 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Potential advantages of work sharing  Trained and loyal workers can be retained while temporarily cutting labor costs.  Continued work  but with reduced earnings  for those who would otherwise be laid off.  Potential disadvantages of work sharing  Employees who might otherwise be protected by seniority may suffer an income loss. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 57 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Telecommuting. A work arrangement that allows a portion of scheduled work hours to be completed outside of the office.  Hoteling.  Virtual offices. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 58 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Potential advantages of telecommuting:      Freedom from  Constraints of commuting.  Fixed hours.  Special work attire.  Direct contact with supervisors. Increased productivity. Fewer distractions. Being one’s own boss. Having more personal time. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 59 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Potential disadvantages of telecommuting:        Working too much. Having less personal time. Difficulty in separating work and personal life. Less time for family. Feelings of isolation. Loss of visibility for promotion. Difficulties supervising work-at-home employees from a distance. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 60 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Part-time work.  Work done on any schedule less than the standard 40-hour workweek and does not qualify person as a full-time employee.  Contingency workers Part-time workers who supplement the full-time workforce, often on a long-term basis.  Now constitute 30 percent of the American workforce.  Management 10/e - Chapter 13 61 Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?  Implications of part-time work:  Provides employers with flexibility in controlling labor costs and dealing with cyclical labor demands.  Temporary workers may lack commitment and be less productive.  Contingency workers are often paid less and don’t receive important fringe benefits. Management 10/e - Chapter 13 62 COPYRIGHT Copyright 2009 © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 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