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Syntax (2) Dr. Ansa Hameed Previously… From Morphology to Syntax Syntax??? Importance of Syntax Study Importance of Syntax Rules Paradigmatic view of Syntax Sentences??? Phrases???? Today’s Lecture Paradigmatic Sentence Phrases Verb Phrases Clauses view Types of Phrases Noun Phrase Adjective Phrase Adverb Phrase Prepositional Phrase Verb Phrase Types of Phrases  Verb A Phrase Verb Phrase (VP) is a phrase that is made up of at least one verb.  Verb phrases often contain noun phrases, prepositional phrases or adverb phrases that function as objects or adverbials of the verb. The verb is the head of the VP.  VPs function as the head of the clause. Types of Phrases Types of Verbs: Verbs can be classified in many different ways. We distinguish different types of verbs according to the following aspects: ◦according to the meaning and function: lexical, linking or auxiliary ◦according to the number of objects it requires: intransitive, transitive or ditransitive ◦according to the form: finite or non-finite Types of Phrases Verbs types according to meaning & function  Lexical verbs are main verbs that add the primary meaning. A main clause must have one and only one lexical verb. I READ a novel.   Linking verbs are verbs that do not add much meaning. They link subjects and subject complements. Peter BECAME bored. Auxiliary verbs are verbs that are used to ‘help’ lexical or linking verbs by adding grammatical information (aspect, tense, modality). Auxiliary verbs do not add lexical meaning. Auxiliary verbs need not be present in a main clause, but sometimes there are more than one auxiliary verb in a single clause. Andrew MAY HAVE BEEN studying too hard. Types of Phrases Verbs types according to number of objects  Intransitive verbs do not need any objects to complement their meaning. Peter had to RUN.   Transitive verbs need one object to complement their meaning. The object may be a Noun Phrase or a Prepositional Phrase. I read AN INTERESTING NEWPAPER ARTICLE. Peter looks after HIS BROTHER. Ditransitive verbs need two objects to complement their meaning. The objects may be two Noun Phrases or a Noun Phrase and a Prepositional Phrase I told MY SISTER A SECRET. Pam gave A PRESENT TO MY BROTHER. Types of Phrases Verbs types according to form All verbs have finite and non-finite forms.  Finite verbs are verbs that are inflected for tense, person and number. In a complex verb there can only be one finite form and it is always at the beginning of the complex verb. A main clause must contain a finite verb.  Sean COMES from Ireland. Laura SHOULD stay home.  Non-finite verbs are verbs that are not inflected for tense, person and number. In a complex verb there can be several non-finite forms. In a main clause the nonfinite forms always follow a finite verb. John has GONE to London. Laura should STAY home. Types of Phrases  The non-finite forms of verbs are: ◦ The bare infinitive go, come, speak ◦ The to-infinitive to go, to come, to speak ◦ The past participle gone, come, spoken ◦ The –ing form going, coming, speaking Back to Sentence So far our knowledge has defined sentence as: Noun + Verb Noun Phrase + verb phrase Noun Phrase + verb phrase+ adverbial phrase Noun phrase+ verb phrase + prepositional phrase Back to Sentence But what about this sentence: Peter ate dinner while he watched t.v.  Is this a sentence??? Having two main verbs?? Back to Sentence Peter ate dinner while he watched t.v. Yes, this is a sentence. It is the sentence from an earlier slide (Peter ate dinner) with additional information added … now we know that Peter was doing two things at once, eating dinner and watching TV. Let’s take a look at the components of this new sentence. Back to Sentence verb Subject Peter ate dinner while he watched tv. object  We have the original subject Peter with its verb ate and its object dinner.  But the sentence continues with a second subject, this time he, a second verb, watched, and a second object, TV. Parts of Sentences: Clauses  Our one sentence is basically two “mini” sentences hooked together by the word while. Peter ate dinner while he watched tv. “Mini” sentences, units of SV/O,C or A, within a sentence are called clauses. Clauses Peter ate dinner while he watched TV. 1 2 1 This sentence is composed of two clauses. But we can still add more to this sentence A Bigger Sentence… After exercising, Peter ate dinner while he watched TV.  In addition to the two clauses we are familiar with, this sentence has the added words after exercising.  The words after exercising work together to give extra information about the clauses, but they do not form a clause. They form a phrase. What is the difference between a clause and a phrase? Clause – a group of words that have a subject and a verb that must always agree Phrase – a noun, verb, or preposition with all its modifiers - does NOT have a subject and verb which agree What is the difference between a clause and a phrase? Phrase Clause A phrase is a group of words that does not have a subject or a verb /agreement. For example: •Eating a peach •Under the teacher’s desk •After seeing the Taj Mahal •To buy a new phone A clause is a group of words that does have both a subject and a verb. For example: •After the rain stopped •They studied for the test •I decided to go home •Since the children are sleeping •The cage door was Clauses Definition: Words that contain a subject and a verb which must always agree. Two types of clauses:  Independent Clause  Dependent Clause Clause Independent Clause An independent clause MUST HAVE a subject and a verb which agree. Example: The frustrated, irritated teachers finally understood the basic grammar concepts. All the words in an independent clause can act alone as a sentence. They are a complete thought. Clause Dependent Clause The subject and verb agree, but the words CANNOT stand alone as a complete sentence. also known as subordinate clause or relative clause Examples: since the teachers seek proficiency in grammar which sheltered the children from the storm Joining Clauses  Clauses can be joined with: 1. Coordinating conjunctions clauses) (join two independent - AKA “FANBOYS” for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so 2. Subordinating conjunctions independent clause) (join dependent clause to Some examples: - if, since, because, with, when, whether, while 3. Relative Pronouns - who, whose, whom, which, that - NOTE: If a relative pronoun is used to begin a dependent clause, that pronoun also has a function within the dependent clause. It will also have an antecedent in the independent clause. Joining Clauses Examples: coordinating conjunction: - The busses lumbered along the boulevard, and the children eagerly looked for the first sight of Disneyland. subordinating conjunction:  The busses lumbered along the boulevard while the children eagerly looked for the first sight of Disneyland. Relative pronoun: - The busses, which were slowly lumbering along the boulevard, were filled with eager children looking for their first sight of Disneyland. More about Sentences Combination of phrases and clauses determine FOUR TYPES OF SENTENCES Four types of sentences???? More about sentences Types of Sentences 1.Simple Sentences Roxie is a dog. 2.Compound Sentences Roxie is a dog, and Rufus is her friend. 3. Complex Sentences Rufus loves Roxie because she is adorable 4. Compound-Complex Sentences Rufus loves Roxie because she is adorable, and she defers to him. Combination of phrases and clauses determine FOUR TYPES OF SENTENCES Type of Sentence Independent Clause Number of Dependent Clause -Simple Sentence 1 0 -Compound Sentence 2+ 0 - Complex Sentence 1 1+ -Compound/Complex 2+ 1+ Sentence Putting it all together…. Sentences are composed of clauses and phrases. Some sentences have only one clause and no phrase: Peter ate dinner. Others have two or more clauses. Because Peter ate dinner while he watched TV, he got indigestion. Putting it all together….. Other sentences have both clauses and phrases After exercising at the gym across the street, Peter ate dinner in the kitchen while he watched TV. Using Clauses & Phrases Once identifying clauses and phrases becomes easy for you, you will begin to notice how good writers put their sentence together. Additionally, once you become comfortable finding clauses and phrases in writing, you can begin to work with the punctuation rules for correctly and effectively putting clauses and phrases together. Test: Identify as Clauses/ Phrases 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Before baking a pie Picking some apples Before he lit the candle Alice wants to be an astronaut Although Alice wants to be an astronaut Behind the couch When I return from school While juggling avocados Test: Correct sentences’ structure Each of the sentences on the next slide has a problem with sentence structure. Find and correct the one sentencestructure error in each of the sentences. Test: Correct sentences’ structure In my opinion, speaking in English easier than writing in English. Is a very interesting point you have raised. My summer internship, for example, it is one way for me. At present, I am finishing a project, and I also starting a new one. Recap Syntax Paradigmatic view Sentence Phrases Clauses Next: Syntactic view of syntax References Falk, Julia. Linguistics and Language. 1978. Hocket, F. C. A Course in Modern Linguistics. New Delhi: Oxford. 1958 Parsad, Tarni, A Course in Linguistics, 2012, New Dehli: PHI Rajimwale, Sharad, Elements of General Linguistics, 2006. Strang, Barbara. Modern English Structure. Edward Arnold. 1968. Tallerman. Understanding Syntax. Valin, R. D. V. An Introduction to Syntax. Cambridge Press. 2001 Yule, George. The Study of Language. 1996.