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“Frontmatter” Handbook of Micro/Nanotribology. Ed. Bharat Bhushan Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 1999 © 1999 by CRC Press LLC Acquiring Editor: Project Editor: Marketing Manager: Cover design: PrePress: Manufacturing: Cindy Carelli Andrea Demby Jane Stark Dawn Boyd Carlos Esser Lisa Spreckelson Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Handbook of micro/nanotribology / edited by Bharat Bhushan. -- 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8493-8402-8 (alk. paper) 1. Tribology--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Bhushan, Bharat, 1949- . TJ1075.H245 1999 621.8′9--dc21 98-24466 CIP This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. All rights reserved. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the personal or internal use of specific clients, may be granted by CRC Press LLC, provided that $.50 per page photocopied is paid directly to Copyright Clearance Center, 27 Congress Street, Salem, MA 01970 USA. The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is ISBN 0-8493-8402-8/98/$0.00+$.50. The fee is subject to change without notice. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 Corporate Blvd., N.W., Boca Raton, Florida 33431. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are only used for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. © 1999 by CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-8402-8 Library of Congress Card Number 98-24466 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 © 1999 by CRC Press LLC Foreword The invention of the scanning tunneling microscope has led to an explosion of a family that is now called scanning probe microscopes (SPMs). The most popular instrument in this family is the atomic force microscope (AFM). According to some estimates, sales of SPMs in 1993 were about 100 million U.S. dollars (about 2,000 units installed to date) worldwide. The biggest portion of this results from AFM sales, although the first ideas and preliminary results were introduced to the scientific community only a few years ago (1986). The whole field of SPM is not very old (the first operation of STM was in 1981) and still is in a rapidly evolving state. The scientific industrial applications include quality control in the semiconductor industry and related research, molecular biology and chemistry, medical studies, materials science, and the field of information storage systems. Soon after the invention of the AFM it was discovered that part of the information in the images resulted from friction and that the instrument could be used as a tool for tribology. In general, SPMs are now used intensively in this field. Researchers can image single lubricant molecules and their agglomeration and measure surface topography, adhesion, friction, wear, lubricant film thickness, and mechanical properties all on a micrometer to nanometer scale. With the advent of more powerful computers, atomic-scale simulations have been conducted of tribological phenomena. Simulations have been able to predict the observed phenomena. Development of the field of micro/nanotribology has attracted numerous physicists and chemists. This is a field I personally know very little about. I am, however, very excited that SPMs have had such an immense impact on the field of tribology. I congratulate Professor Bharat Bhushan in helping to develop this field of micro/nanotribology. The Handbook of Micro/Nanotribology is very timely and I expect that it will be well received by the international scientific community. With best wishes. Prof. Dr. Gerd Binnig IBM Research Division Munich, Germany Nobel Laureate Physics, 1986 © 1999 by CRC Press LLC Preface Second Edition, 1999 The first edition of the Handbook of Micro/Nanotribology was published in the Spring of 1995. Soon after its publication, the first-of-a-kind monograph became a reference book for the novice, as well as experts, in the emerging field of micro/nanotribology. Since the field is evolving very rapidly, we felt that the monograph needed a second edition. The second edition is totally revised. The scope of the first edition has been expanded. In the first part, Basic Studies, two new chapters on AFM Instrumentation and Tips and Surface Forces and Adhesion have been added. In the second part, Applications, four new chapters on Design and Construction of Magnetic Storage Devices, Microdynamic Devices and Systems, Mechanical Properties of Materials in Microstructure Technology, and Micro/Nanotribology and Micro/Nanomechanics of MEMS Devices have been added. The content of each original chapter has been revised and broadened. In many cases, new authors were invited to contribute chapters on topics covered in the first edition. Of the 16 chapters in the book — 11 in Basic Studies and five in Applications — 11 are written by new contributors, whereas five chapters have been thoroughly revised by the original authors. The organization of the Handbook is straightforward. It is divided into two parts: Part I covers the basic studies and Part II encompasses design, construction, and applications to magnetic storage devices and MEMS. The introduction chapter starts out with a definition and the evolution of micro/nanotribology, description of various measurement techniques, and description of various industrial applications where the study of tribology, on a nanoscale, is critical. After this chapter, the subject matter is presented as follows: an overview of AFM instrumentation and tips; current understanding of surface physics and description of methods used to physically and chemically characterize solid surfaces; roughness characterization and static contact models using fractal analysis; surface forces and adhesion; introduction of sliding at the interface and study of friction on an atomic scale; study of scratching and wear as a result of sliding, applications to nanofabrication/nanomachining, as well as nano/picoindentation; study of lubricants used to minimize friction and wear; surface forces and microrheology of thin liquid films; measurement of nanomechanical properties of surfaces and thin films; and atomic-scale simulations of interfacial phenomena. Part II includes material in the following order: design and construction of magnetic storage devices; microdynamic devices and systems; micro/nanotribology and micro/nano mechanics of magnetic storage devices; mechanical properties of materials in microstructure technology; and micro/nanotribology and micro/nanomechanics of MEMS devices. The Handbook is intended for graduate students of tribology and researchers who are active or intend to become so in this field. This book should serve as an excellent text for a graduate course in micro/nanotribology. For a reduced scope of the course, Chapters 2, 3, and 10 (Part I) and Chapters 12 and 13 (Part II) can be eliminated. For a more concise course, Chapter 4 may also be eliminated. © 1999 by CRC Press LLC I would like to thank the authors for their excellent contributions in a timely manner. My secretary, Kathleen Tucker, patiently typed six of the chapters contributed by me to this book. Last, but not least, I wish to thank my wife, Sudha, my son, Ankur, and my daughter, Noopur, who have been very forbearing during the preparation of this book. Bharat Bhushan Powell, Ohio © 1999 by CRC Press LLC Preface First Edition, 1995 Tribology is the science and technology of two interacting surfaces in relative motion and of related subjects and practices. The popular equivalent is friction, wear, and lubrication. The advent of new techniques to measure surface topography, adhesion, friction, wear, lubricant-film thickness, and mechanical properties all on a micro to nanometer scale, to image lubricant molecules and availability of supercomputers to conduct atomic-scale simulations has led to development of a new field referred to as Microtribology, Nanotribology, Molecular Tribology, or Atomic-Scale Tribology. This field is concerned with experimental and theoretical investigations of processes ranging from atomic and molecular scales to microscale, occurring during adhesion, friction, wear, and thin-film lubrication at sliding surfaces. These studies are needed to develop fundamental understanding of interfacial phenomena on a small scale and to study interfacial phenomena in micro- and nano structures used in magnetic storage systems, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and other industrial applications. The components used in micro- and nano structures are very light (on the order of few micrograms) and operate under very light loads (on the order of few micrograms to few milligrams). As a result, friction and wear (nanoscopic wear) of lightly loaded micro/nano components are highly dependent on the surface interactions (few atomic layers). These structures are generally lubricated with molecularly thin films. Microand nanotribological techniques are ideal to study friction and wear processes of micro/nano structures. These studies are also valuable in the fundamental understanding of interfacial phenomena in macrostructures to provide a bridge between science and engineering. Friction and wear on micro- and nanoscales have been found to be generally smaller compared to that at macroscales. Therefore, micronanotribological studies may identify regimes for ultra-low friction and zero wear. The field of tribology is truly interdisciplinary. Until recently, it has been dominated by mechanical and chemical engineers who have conducted macro tests to predict friction and wear lives in machine components and devised new lubricants to minimize friction and wear. Development of the field of micro/nanotribology has attracted many more physicists and chemists who have significantly contributed to the fundamental understanding of friction and wear processes on an atomic scale. Thus, tribology is now studied by both engineers and scientists. The micro/nanotribology field is growing rapidly and it has become fashionable to call oneself a “tribologist”. Since 1991, international conferences and courses have been organized on this new field of micro/nanotribology. We felt a need to develop a handbook of micro/nano tribology. This first-of-a-kind monograph presents the state-of-the-art of the micro/nanotribology field by the leading international researchers. In each chapter we start with macroconcepts leading to microconcepts. We assume that the reader is not expert in the field of microtribology, but has some knowledge of macrotribology. It covers characterization of solid surfaces, various measurement techniques and their applications, and theoretical modeling of interfaces. The organization of the handbook is straightforward. The book is divided into two parts. Part I covers the basic studies and Part II covers applications to magnetic storage devices and MEMS. Part I includes © 1999 by CRC Press LLC ten chapters. The introduction chapter starts out with a definition and evolution of micro/nanotribology, description of various measurement techniques, and description of various industrial applications where the study of tribology, on a nanoscale, is critical. Following the introduction chapter, subject matter is presented in the following order: description of methods used to physically and chemically characterize solid surfaces, roughness characterization and static contact models using fractal analysis, introduction of sliding at the interface and study of friction, study of wear as a result of sliding, study of lubricants used to minimize friction and wear, imaging of lubricant molecules, surface forces and microrheology of thin liquid films, measurement of micromechanical properties of surfaces and thin films, and atomicscale simulations of interfacial phenomena. Part II includes three chapters. Subject matter is presented in the following order: micro/nanotribology and micro/nano mechanics of magnetic storage devices and MEMS, role of particulate contaminants in tribology and applications to magnetic storage devices and MEMS, and modeling of hydrodynamic lubrication with molecularly thin gas films and applications to MEMS. The handbook is intended for graduate students of tribology and research workers who are active or intend to become active in this field. This book should serve as an excellent text for a graduate course in micro/nanotribology. For a reduced scope of the course, Chapters 2 and 9 from Part I and Chapters 11 to 13 from Part II can be eliminated. For a further reduction, Chapter 3 from Part I can also be eliminated. I would like to thank the authors for their excellent contributions in a timely manner. And I wish to thank my wife, Sudha, my son, Ankur, and my daughter, Noopur, who have been very forbearing during the preparation of this book. Bharat Bhushan Powell, Ohio © 1999 by CRC Press LLC The Editor Bharat Bhushan, Ph.D., a pioneer in tribology and the mechanics of magnetic storage devices, is an internationally recognized expert in the general fields of conventional tribology and micro/nanotribology and one of the most prolific authors. He is presently an Ohio Eminent Scholar and The Howard D. Winbigler Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering and the Director of Computer Microtribology and Contamination Laboratory at The Ohio State University, Columbus. He received a Masters in mechanical engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, a Masters in mechanics and a Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from the University of Colorado at Boulder, an MBA from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, NY, a Doctor Technicae from the University of Trondheim, Norway, and a Habilitate Doctor of Technical Sciences from the Warsaw University of Technology in Poland. He is a registered professional engineer (mechanical). He has authored five technical books, 22 handbook chapters, more than 350 technical papers in refereed journals, more than 60 technical reports, edited more than 24 books, and holds seven U.S. patents. He is founding editor-in-chief of the World Scientific Advances in Information Storage Systems Series, The CRC Press Mechanics and Materials Science Series, and the Journal of Information Storage and Processing Systems. He has given more than 175 invited presentations on five continents, including several keynote addresses at major international conferences. He is an accomplished organizer. He organized the first symposium on Tribology and Mechanics of Magnetic Storage Systems in 1984 and the first international symposium on Advances in Information Storage Systems in 1990. He continues to organize and chair the AISS symposia annually. He founded an ASME Information Storage and Processing Systems Division and is the founding chair. His biography has been listed in over two dozen Who’s Who books, including Who’s Who in the World. He has received more than a dozen awards for his contributions to science and technology from professional societies, industry, and U.S. government agencies. He is a foreign member of the Byelorussian Academy of Engineering and Technology, the Russian Engineering Academy and the Ukrainian Academy of Transportation, a senior member of IEEE, and a member of STLE, NSPE, Sigma Xi, and Tau Beta Pi. Dr. Bhushan has worked for the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA; Automotive Specialists, Denver, CO; the R & D Division of Mechanical Technology, Inc., Latham, NY; the Technology Services Division of SKF Industries, Inc., King of Prussia, PA; the General Products Division Laboratory of IBM Corporation, Tucson, AZ; the Almaden Research Center of IBM Corporation, San Jose, CA; and the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the University of California, Berkeley. He is married and has two children. His hobbies include music, photography, hiking, and traveling. © 1999 by CRC Press LLC