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ASM INTERNATIONAL The Materials Information Company ® Publication Information and Contributors Casting was published in 1988 as Volume 15 of the 9th Edition Metals Handbook. With the second printing (1992), the series title was changed to ASM Handbook. The Volume was prepared under the direction of the ASM Handbook Committee. Volume Chair The Volume Chair was D.M. Stefanescu. Authors and Reviewers • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Rafael Menezes Nunes UFRGS G. J. Abbaschian University of Florida Harvey Abramowitz Purdue University R. Agarwal General Motors Technical Center Mark J. Alcini Williams International Robert L. Allen Deere & Company Richard L. Anderson Arnold Engineering Company John Andrews Camden Castings Center James J. Archibald Ashland Chemical Company Shigeo Asai Nagoya University (Japan) William H. Bailey Cleveland Pneumatic Company Leo J. Baran American Foundrymen's Society, Inc. W.J. Barice Precision Castparts Corporation Charles E. Bates Southern Research Institute Robert J. Bayuzick Vanderbilt University J. Beech University of Sheffield (Great Britain) V.G. Behal Dofasco Inc. (Canada) P. Belding Columbia Steel Casting Company John T. Berry University of Alabama U. Betz Leybold AG (West Germany) Gopal K. Bhat Bhat Technology International, Inc. Yves Bienvenu Ecole des Mines de Paris (France) H.E. Bills Reynolds Metals Company Reynolds Aluminum Charles R. Bird Stainless Steel Foundry & Engineering Inc. K.E. Blazek Inland Steel Company William J. Boettinger National Bureau of Standards M.A. Bohlmann I.G. Technologies, Inc. Charles B. Boyer Battelle Columbus Division Jose R. Branco Colorado School of Mines R. Brink Leybold AG (West Germany) William Brouse Carpenter Technology Corporation Roger B. Brown Disamatic, Inc. Francis Brozo Hitchcock Industries, Inc. Robert S. Buck International Magnesium Consultants, Inc. J. Bukowski General Motors Technical Center Wilhelm Burgmann Leybold AG (West Germany) H.I. Burrier The Timken Company Michael Byrne Homer Research Laboratories S.L. Camacho Plasma Energy Corporation Paul G. Campbell ALUMAX of South Carolina • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • James A. Capadona Signicast Corporation C. Carlsson Asea Brown Boveri, Inc. James H. Carpenter Pangborn Corporation Sam F. Carter Carter Consultants, Inc. Dixon Chandley Metal Casting Technology, Inc. K.K. Chawla New Mexico Institute of Technology Dianne Chong McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Company A. Choudhury Leybold AG (West Germany) Richard J. Choulet Steelmaking Consultant Yeou-Li Chu The Ohio State University Dwight Clark Baltimore Specialty Steels Steve Clark R.H. Sheppard Company, Inc. Byron B. Clow International Magnesium Consultants, Inc. Arthur Cohen Copper Development Association, Inc. B. Cole Fort Wayne Foundry Corporation H.H. Cornell Niobium Products Company, Inc. James A. Courtois ALUMAX Engineered Metal Processes, Inc. Jim Cox Hatch Associates Ltd. D.B. Craig Elkem Metals Company Alan W. Cramb Carnegie Mellon University R. Creese West Virginia University T.J. Crowley Microwave Processing Systems Milford Cunningham Stahl Specialty Company Peter A. Curreri NASA Marshall Space Flight Center Michael J. Cusick Colorado School of Mines Johnathan A. Dantzig University of Illinois at Urbana--Champaign C.V. Darragh The Timken Company A.S. Davis ESCO Corporation Jackson A. Dean Cardinal Service Company Prateen V. Desai Georgia Institute of Technology B.K. Dhindaw IIT Kharagpur (India) W. Dietrich Leybold AG (West Germany) George Di Sylvestro American Colloid Company R. L. Dobson The Centrifugal Casting Machine Company George J. Dooley, III United States Department of the Interior J.L. Dorcic IIT Research Institute R. Doremus Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute G. Doughman Casting Design and Services B. Duca Duca Remanufacturing Inc. J. DuPlessis Crucible Magnetics Division F. Durand Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Polytechnique de Grenoble (France) William B. Eisen Crucible Compaction Metals Nagy El-Kaddah University of Alabama R. Elliott University of Manchester (Great Britain) John M. Eridon Howmet Corporation R.C. Eschenbach Retech, Inc. N. Eustathopoulos Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble (France) M. Evans Cytemp Specialty Steels Robert D. Evans ALUMAX Engineered Metal Processes, Inc. Daniel Eylon University of Dayton H.E. Exner Max-Planck-Institut für Metallforschung (West Germany) Gilbert M. Farrior ALUMAX Engineered Metal Processes, Inc. J. Feroe G.H. Hensley Industries Inc. J. Feinman Technical Consultant • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Merton C. Flemings Massachusetts Institute of Technology S.C. Flood Alcan International Ltd. (Great Britain) Victor K. Forsberg Quanex Robert C. Foyle Herman-Sinto V-Process Corporation H. Frederiksson The Royal Institute of Technology (Sweden) Richard J. Fruehan Carnegie Mellon University B. Gabrielsson Elwood Uddeholm Steel Company D.R. Gaskell Purdue University William Gavin Hitchcock Industries, Inc. H. Gaye Technical Consultant M. Geiger Asea Brown Boveri, Inc. L. Gonano National Forge Company George Good Ford Motor Company George M. Goodrich Taussig Associates, Inc. Martha Goodway Smithsonian Institution P. Gouwens CMI Novacast Inc. J. Grach Cominco Metals L.D. Graham PCC Airfoils E.J. Grandy H. Kramer & Company Douglas A. Granger Alcoa Technical Center C.V. Grosse Howmet Corporation R.E. Grote Missouri Precision Castings Daniel B. Groteke Metcast Associates, Inc. Thomas E. Grubach Aluminum Company of America J.E. Gruzleski McGill University (Canada) Richard B. Gundlach Climax Research Services T.B. Gurganus Alcoa Technical Center Alex M. Gymarty SKW Metals & Alloys, Inc. David Hale Ervin Industries, Inc. T.C. Hansen Trane Company Michael J. Hanslits Precision Castparts Corporation Howard R. Harker A. Johnson Metals Corporation Ron Harrison Cameron Forge Company Richard Helbling Northern Castings H. Henein Carnegie Mellon University D.G. Hennessy The Timken Company John J. Henrich United States Pipe and Foundry Company W. Herman Quanex Edwin Hodge Degussa Electronics Inc. D. Hoffman National Forge Company George B. Hood United Technologies Pratt & Whitney M.J. Hornung Elkem Metals Company Robert A. Horton PCC Airfoils, Inc. Daryl F. Hoyt Wedron Silica Company I.C.H. Hughes BCIRA International Centre for Cast Metals Technology (Great Britain) R. Hummer Austrian Foundry Research Institute (Austria) James Hunt Southern Aluminum Company J.D. Hunt University of Oxford (Great Britain) W.-S. Hwang National Cheng Kung University (Taiwan) J.E. Indacochea University of Illinois K. Ito Carnegie Mellon University K.A. Jackson AT&T Bell Laboratories J.D. Jackson Pratt & Whitney N. Janco Technical Consultant • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • H. Jones University of Sheffield (Great Britain) M. Jones Duriron Company, Inc. J.L. Jorstad Reynolds Aluminum David P. Kanicki American Foundrymen's Society Seymour Katz General Motors Research Laboratories T.L. Kaveney Technical Consultant Avery Kearney Avery Kearney & Company H. Kemmer Leybold AG (West Germany) Malachi P. Kenney ALUMAX Engineered Metal Processes, Inc. Gerhard Kienel Leybold AG (West Germany) Dan Kihlstadius Oregon Metallurgical Corporation Franklin L. Kiiskila Williams International Ken Kirgin Technical Consultant David H. Kirkwood University of Sheffield (Great Britain) F. Knell Leybold AG (West Germany) Allan A. Koch ALUMAX Engineered Metal Processes, Inc. G.J.W. Kor The Timken Company D.J. Kotecki Teledyne McKay Ronald M. Kotschi Kotschi's Software & Services, Inc. Ezra L. Kotzin American Foundrymen's Society R.W. Kraft Lehigh University W. Kurz Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (Switzerland) Curtis P. Kyonka ALUMAX Engineered Metal Processes, Inc. John B. Lambert Fansteel Craig F. Landefeld General Motors Research Laboratories Eugene Langner American Cast Iron Pipe Company A. Laporte National Forge Company David J. Larson, Jr. Grumman Corporation John P. Laughlin Oregon Metallurgical Corporation Franklin D. Lemkey United Technologies Research Center G. Lesoult Ecole des Mines de Nancy (France) Colin Lewis Hitchcock Industries, Inc. Don Lewis Aluminum Smelt & Refining Ronald L. Lewis The Ohio State University R. Lindsay, III Newport News Shipbuilding R.D. Lindsay Plasma Energy Corporation Stephen Liu Colorado School of Mines Roy Lobenhofer American Foundrymen's Society C.A. Loong Noranda Research Centre (Canada) Carl Lundin University of Tennessee Norris Luther Luther & Associates Alvin F. Maloit Consulting Metallurgist P. Magnin Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (Switzerland) William L. Mankins Inco Alloys International, Inc. P.W. Marshall Technical Consultant Ian F. Masterson Union Carbide Corporation Linde Division Gene J. Maurer, Jr. United States Industries D. Mayton Urick Foundry T.K. McCluhan Elken Metals Company J. McDonough Technical Consultant J.P. McKenna Lindberg Division Unit of General Signal Corporation W. McNeish Teledyne All-Vac Ravi Menon Teledyne McKay Thomas N. Meyer Aluminum Company of America • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • William Mihaichuk Eastern Alloys, Inc. David P. Miller The Timken Company A. Mitchell The University of British Columbia (Canada) S. Mizoguchi Nippon Steel Corporation (Japan) G. Monzo Elwood Uddeholm Steel Company P. Moroz Armco Inc. F. Müller Leybold AG (West Germany) Frederick A. Morrow TFI Corporation C. Nagy Union Carbide Corporation N.E. Nannina Cast Masters Division of Latrobe Steel R.L. Naro Ashland Chemical Company E. Nechtelberger Austrian Foundry Research Institute (Austria) David V. Neff Metaullics Systems Charles D. Nelson Morris Bean and Company Dale C.H. Nevison Zinc Information Center, Ltd. Jeremy R. Newman Titech International Inc. Roger A. Nichting Colorado School of Mines I. Ohnaka Osaka University (Japan) Patrick O'Meara Intermet Foundries Inc. B. Ozturk Carnegie Mellon University K.V. Pagalthivarthi GIW Industries, Inc. H. Pannen Leybold AG (West Germany) J. Parks ME International Murray Patz Lost Foam Technologies, Inc. Walter J. Peck Central Foundry Division General Motors Corporation Robert D. Pehlke University of Michigan J.H. Perepezko University of Wisconsin--Madison Ralph Y. Perkul Asea Brown Boveri, Inc. Art Piechowski Grede Foundries, Inc. Larry J. Pionke McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Company Thomas S. Piwonka University of Alabama Lee A. Plutshack Foseco, Inc. D.R. Poirier University of Arizona J.R. Ponteri Lester B. Knight & Associates, Inc. Richard L. Poole Aluminum Company of America William Powell Waupaca Foundry Henry Proffitt Haley Industries Ltd. (Canada) William Provis Modern Equipment Company Timothy J. Pruitt Zimmer, Inc. John D. Puckett Nelson Metal Products Corporation Christopher W. Ramsey Colorado School of Mines V. Rangarajan Colorado School of Mines M. Rappaz Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (Switzerland) Garland W. Reese Leybold-Heraeus Technologies Inc. J.E. Rehder University of Toronto (Canada) H. Rice Atlas Specialty Steel Division (Canada) J.E. Roberts Huntington Alloys C.E. Rodaitis The Timken Company Lynn Rogers Ervin Industries, Inc. Pradeep Rohatgi University of Wisconsin--Milwaukee Elwin L. Rooy Aluminum Company of America Mervin T. Rowley Technical Consultant Alain Royer Pont-A-Mousson S.A. (France) Ronald W. Ruddle Ronald W. Ruddle & Associates • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Gary F. Ruff CMI-International Peter R. Sahm Giesserei-Institut der RWTH (West Germany) Mahi Sahoo Canadian Centre for Minerals and Energy Technology (Canada) Robert F. Schmidt Colonial Metals Company Richard Schaefer FWS, Inc. Donald G. Schmidt R. Lavin & Sons, Inc. T.E. Schmidt Mercury Marine Division of Brunswick Corporation Robert A. Schmucker, Jr. Thomas & Skinner, Inc. Rainer Schumann Leybold Technologies Inc. D.M. Schuster Dural Aluminum Composites Corporation William Seaton Seaton-SSK Engineering, Inc. R. Shebuski Outboard Marine Corporation W. Shulof General Motors Corporation G. Sick Leybold AG (West Germany) Geoffrey K. Sigworth Reading Foundry Products H. Sims Vulcan Engineering Company J. Slaughter Southern Alloy Corporation Lawrence E. Smiley Reliable Castings Corporation Cyril Stanley Smith Technical Consultant Richard L. Smith Ashland Chemical Company John D. Sommerville University of Toronto (Canada) Warren Spear Technical Consultant T. Spence Duriron Company, Inc. A. Spengler Technical Consultant D.M. Stefanescu The University of Alabama S. Stefanidis I. Schumann & Company H. Stephan Leybold AG (West Germany) T. Stevens Wollaston Alloys, Inc. D. Stickle Duriron Company, Inc. Stephen C. Stocks Oregon Metallurgical Corporation R.A. Stoehr University of Pittsburgh C.W. Storey High Tech Castings George R. St. Pierre The Ohio State University R. Russell Stratton Investment Casting Institute Ken Strausbaugh Ashland Chemical Company Lionel J.D. Sully Edison Industrial Systems Center Anthony L. Suschil Foseco, Inc. Koreaki Suzuki Hiroshima Junior College (Japan) John M. Svoboda Steel Founders' Society of America Julian Szekely Massachusetts Institute of Technology Jack Thielke Asea Brown Boveri, Inc. Gary L. Thoe Waupaca Foundry, Inc. John K. Thorne Precision Castparts Corporation Basant L. Tiwari General Motors Research Laboratories Judith A. Todd University of Southern California R. Trivedi Iowa State University Paul K. Trojan University of Michigan--Dearborn D. Trudell Aluminum Company of America D.H. Turner Timet Inc. B.L. Tuttle GMI Engineering & Management Institute Daniel Twarog American Foundrymen's Society Derek Tyler Olin Corporation A.E. Umble Bethlehem Steel Corporation G. Uren Electrical Metallurgy Company • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Stella Vasseur Pont-A-Mausson (France) John D. Verhoeven Ames Laboratory S.K. Verma IIT Research Institute Robert Voigt University of Kansas Vernon F. Voigt Giddings & Lewis Machine Tool Company Vaughan Voller University of Minnesota P. Voorhees Northwestern University Terry Waitt Maynard Steel Casting Company J. Wallace Case Western Reserve University Charles F. Walton Technical Consultant A. Wayne Ward Ward & Associates Claude Watts Technical Consultant Daniel F. Weaver Pontiac Foundry, Inc. E. Weingärtner Leybold AG (West Germany) D. Wells Huntington Alloys Charles E. West Aluminum Company of America J.H. Westbrook Sci-Tech Knowledge Systems, Inc. Kenneth Whaler Stahl Specialties Company Charles V. White GMI Engineering & Management Institute Eldon Whiteside U.S. Gypsum P. Wieser Technical Consultant W.R. Wilcox Clarkson University Larson E. Wile Consultant J.L. Wilkoff S. Wilkoff & Sons Company R. Williams Air Force Wright Aeronautical Laboratories Frank T. Worzala University of Wisconsin--Madison Nick Wukovich Foseco, Inc. R.A. Wright Technical Consultant Michael Wrysch Detroit Diesel Allison Division General Motors Corporation R. Youmans Modern Equipment Company, Inc. Kenneth P. Young AMAX Research and Development Center William B. Young Dana Corporation Engine Products Division Michael Zatkoff Sandtechnik, Inc. Foreword The subject of metal casting was covered--along with forging--in Volume 5 of the 8th Edition of Metals Handbook. Volume 15 of the 9th Edition, a stand-alone volume on the subject, is evidence of the strong commitment of ASM International to the advancement of casting technology. The decision to devote an entire Handbook to the subject of casting was based on the veritable explosion of improved or entirely new molding, melting, metal treatment, and casting processes that has occurred in the 18 years since the publication of Volume 5. New casting materials, such as cast metal-matrix composites, also have been developed in that time, and computers are being used increasingly by the foundry industry. An entire section of this Handbook is devoted to the application of computers to metal casting, in particular to the study of phenomena associated with the solidification of molten metals. Coverage of the depth and scope provided in Volume 15 is made possible only by the collective efforts of many individuals. In this case, the effort was an international one, with participants in 12 nations. The driving force behind the entire project was volume chairman Doru M. Stefanescu of the University of Alabama, who along with his section chairmen recruited more than 200 of the leading experts in the world to author articles for this Handbook. We are indebted to all of them, as well as to the members of the ASM Handbook Committee and the Handbook editorial staff. Their hard work and dedication have culminated in the publication of this, the most comprehensive single-volume reference on casting technology yet published. William G. Wood President, ASM International Edward L. Langer Managing Director, ASM International Preface The story of metal casting is as glamorous as it is ancient, beginning with the dawn of human civilization and interwoven with legends of fantastic weapons and exquisite artworks made of precious metals. It was and is involved in the two main activities of humans since they began walking the earth: producing and defending wealth. Civilization as we know it would not have been possible without metal casting. Metal casting must have emerged from the darkness of antiquity first as magic, later to evolve as an art, then as a technology, and finally as a complex, interdisciplinary science. As with most other industries, the body of knowledge in metal casting has doubled over the last ten years. A modern text on the subject should discuss not only the new developments in the field but also the applications of some fundamental sciences such as physical chemistry, heat transfer, and fluid flow in metal casting. The task of reviewing such an extensive amount of information and of documenting the knowledge currently involved in the various branches of this manufacturing industry is almost impossible. Nevertheless, this is the goal of this Volume. For such an endeavor to succeed, only one avenue was possible--to involve in the preparation of the manuscripts as well as in the review process the top metal casting engineers and scientists in the international community. Indeed, nearly 350 dedicated experts from industry and academe worldwide contributed to this Handbook. This magnificent pool of talent was instrumental in putting together what I believe to be the most complete text on metal casting available in the English language today. The Handbook is structured in ten Sections, along with a Glossary of Terms. The reader is first introduced to the historical development of metal casting, as well as to the advantages of castings over parts produced by other manufacturing processes, their applications, and the current market size of the industry. Then, the thermodynamic relationships and properties of liquid metals and the physical chemistry of gases and impurities in liquid metals are discussed. A rather extensive Section reviews the fundamentals of the science of solidification as applied to cast alloys, including nucleation kinetics, fundamentals of growth, and the more practical subject of interpretation of cooling curves. Traditional subjects such as patterns, molding and casting processes, foundry equipment, and processing and design considerations are extensively covered in the following Sections. Considerable attention has been paid to new and emerging processes, such as the Hitchiner process, directional solidification, squeeze casting, and semisolid metal forming. The metallurgy of ferrous and nonferrous alloys is extensively covered in two separate Sections. Finally, there is detailed information on the most modern approach to metal casting, namely, computer applications. The basic principles of modeling of heat transfer, fluid flow, and microstructural evolution are discussed, and typical examples are given. It is hoped that the reader can find in this Handbook not only the technical information that he or she may seek, but also the prevailing message that the metal casting industry is mature but not aging. It is part of human civilization and will remain so for centuries to come. Make no mistake. A country cannot hold its own in the international marketplace without a modern, competitive metal casting industry. It is a great pleasure to acknowledge the collective effort of the many contributors to this Handbook. The chairmen of the ten Sections and the authors of the articles are easily acknowledged, since their names are duly listed throughout the Volume. Less obvious but of tremendous importance in maintaining a uniform, high-quality text is the contribution of the reviewers. The Handbook staff of ASM INTERNATIONAL must also be commended for their dauntless and painstaking efforts in making this Volume not only accurate but also beautiful. Last but not least, I would like to acknowledge the precious assistance of my secretary, Mrs. Donna Snow, who had the patience to cope gracefully with the many tasks involved in such a complex project. Prof. D.M. Stefanescu Volume Chairman General Information Officers and Trustees of ASM International Officers • • • • William G. Wood President and Trustee Kolene Corporation Richard K. Pitler Vice President and Trustee Allegheny Ludlum Corporation (retired) Raymond F. Decker Immediate Past President and Trustee University Science Partners, Inc. Frank J. Waldeck Treasurer Lindberg Corporation Trustees • • • • • • • • • • Stephen M. Copley University of Southern California Herbert S. Kalish Adamas Carbide Corporation H. Joseph Klein Haynes International, Inc. William P. Koster Metcut Research Associates, Inc. Robert E. Luetje Kolene Corporation Gunvant N. Maniar Carpenter Technology Corporation Larry A. Morris Falconbridge Limited William E. Quist Boeing Commercial Airplane Company Daniel S. Zamborsky Aerobraze Corporation Edward L. Langer Managing Director ASM International Members of the ASM Handbook Committee (1987-1988) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Dennis D. Huffman (Chairman 1986-; Member 1983-) The Timken Company Roger J. Austin (1984-) Astro Met Associates, Inc. Roy G. Baggerly (1987-) Kenworth Truck Company Peter Beardmore (1986-) Ford Motor Company Robert D. Caligiuri (1986-) Failure Analysis Associates Richard S. Cremisio (1986-) Rescorp International, Inc. Thomas A. Freitag (1985-1988) The Aerospace Corporation Charles David Himmelblau (1985-1988) Lockheed Missiles & Space Company, Inc. J. Ernesto Indacochea (1987-) University of Illinois at Chicago Eli Levy (1987-) The De Havilland Aircraft Company of Canada Arnold R. Marder (1987-) Lehigh University L.E. Roy Meade (1986-) Lockheed-Georgia Company Merrill L. Minges (1986-) Air Force Wright Aeronautical Laboratories David V. Neff (1986-) Metaullics Systems David LeRoy Olson (1982-1988) Colorado School of Mines Ned W. Polan (1987-) Olin Corporation Paul E. Rempes (1986-) Williams International E. Scala (1986-) Cortland Cable Company, Inc. David A. Thomas (1986-) Lehigh University Previous Chairmen of the ASM Handbook Committee • • • • • • R.S. Archer (1940-1942) (Member, 1937-1942) L.B. Case (1931-1933) (Member, 1927-1933) T.D. Cooper (1984-1986) (Member, 1981-1986) E.O. Dixon (1952-1954) (Member, 1947-1955) R.L. Dowdell (1938-1939) (Member, 1935-1939) J.P. Gill (1937) (Member, 1934-1937)