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Aircraft Systems Aircraft Systems: Mechanical, electrical, and avionics subsystems integration, Third Edition . Ian Moir and Allan Seabridge © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 978-0-470-05996-8 Aircraft Systems Mechanical, electrical, and avionics subsystems integration Third Edition Ian Moir Allan Seabridge Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England Telephone +44 1243 779777 Email (for orders and customer service enquiries): cs-books@wiley.co.uk Visit our Home Page on www.wiley.com All Rights Reserved. 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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Moir, I. (Ian) Aircraft systems : mechanical, electrical, and avionics subsystems integration / Ian Moir, Allan Seabridge. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-470-05996-8 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. Aeronautics—Systems engineering. 2. Airplanes, Military—Design and construction. 3. Airplanes—Equipment and supplies. I. Seabridge, A. G. (Allan G.) II. Title. TL671.M59 2008 629.135—dc22 2008001330 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-0-470-05996-8 Typeset in 10.5/12.5pt Palatino by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd, Pondicherry, India Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire This book is printed on acid-free paper. To Mike Woodhead 1944 to 2007 Professor of Systems Engineering at Loughborough University An inspiration to all systems engineers and sadly missed Contents Foreword xvii Series Preface xix About the Authors xxi Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations Introduction Systems Integration Systems Interaction 1 Flight Control Systems 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Principles of Flight Control 1.3 Flight Control Surfaces 1.4 Primary Flight Control 1.5 Secondary Flight Control 1.6 Commercial Aircraft 1.6.1 Primary Flight Control 1.6.2 Secondary Flight Control 1.7 Flight Control Linkage Systems 1.7.1 Push-Pull Control Rod System 1.7.2 Cable and Pulley System 1.8 High Lift Control Systems 1.9 Trim and Feel 1.9.1 Trim 1.9.2 Feel 1.10 Flight Control Actuation 1.10.1 Simple Mechanical/Hydraulic Actuation 1.10.2 Mechanical Actuation with Electrical Signalling xxiii xxv xxxv xxxvi xxxix 1 1 3 4 5 5 7 7 7 9 10 11 13 15 15 17 18 19 21 viii Contents 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.10.3 Multiple Redundancy Actuation 1.10.4 Mechanical Screwjack Actuator 1.10.5 Integrated Actuator Package (IAP) 1.10.6 Advanced Actuation Implementations Civil System Implementations 1.11.1 Top-Level Comparison 1.11.2 Airbus Implementation Fly-By-Wire Control Laws A380 Flight Control Actuation Boeing 777 Implementation Interrelationship of Flight Control, Guidance and Flight Management 22 26 27 30 34 35 36 40 41 44 48 2 Engine Control Systems 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Engine/Airframe Interfaces 2.2 Engine Technology and Principles of Operation 2.3 The Control Problem 2.3.1 Fuel Flow Control 2.3.2 Air Flow Control 2.3.3 Control Systems 2.3.4 Control System Parameters 2.3.5 Input Signals 2.3.6 Output Signals 2.4 Example Systems 2.5 Design Criteria 2.6 Engine Starting 2.6.1 Fuel Control 2.6.2 Ignition Control 2.6.3 Engine Rotation 2.6.4 Throttle Levers 2.6.5 Starting Sequence 2.7 Engine Indications 2.8 Engine Oil Systems 2.9 Engine Offtakes 2.10 Reverse Thrust 2.11 Engine Control on Modern Civil Aircraft 51 51 52 53 55 56 58 59 60 60 62 62 71 73 73 74 75 77 78 78 81 81 83 84 3 Fuel 3.1 3.2 3.3 87 87 89 90 90 91 92 93 Systems Introduction Characteristics of Fuel Systems Description of Fuel System Components 3.3.1 Fuel Transfer Pumps 3.3.2 Fuel Booster Pumps 3.3.3 Fuel Transfer Valves 3.3.4 Non-Return Valves (NRVs) Contents 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 4 ix Fuel Quantity Measurement 3.4.1 Level Sensors 3.4.2 Fuel Gauging Probes 3.4.3 Fuel Quantity Measurement Basics 3.4.4 Tank Shapes 3.4.5 Fuel Properties 3.4.6 Fuel Quantity Measurement Systems 3.4.7 Fokker F50/F100 System 3.4.8 Airbus A320 System 3.4.9 ‘Smart' Probes 3.4.10 Ultrasonic Probes Fuel System Operating Modes 3.5.1 Pressurisation 3.5.2 Engine Feed 3.5.3 Fuel Transfer 3.5.4 Refuel/Defuel 3.5.5 Vent Systems 3.5.6 Use of Fuel as a Heat Sink 3.5.7 External Fuel Tanks 3.5.8 Fuel Jettison 3.5.9 In-Flight Refuelling Integrated Civil Aircraft Systems 3.6.1 Bombardier Global Express 3.6.2 Boeing 777 3.6.3 A340-500/600 Fuel System Fuel Tank Safety 3.7.1 Principles of Fuel Inerting 3.7.2 Air Separation Technology 3.7.3 Typical Fuel Inerting System Polar Operations – Cold Fuel Management 3.8.1 Minimum Equipment List (MEL) 3.8.2 Cold Fuel Characteristics 3.8.3 Fuel Temperature Indication Hydraulic Systems 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Hydraulic Circuit Design 4.3 Hydraulic Actuation 4.4 Hydraulic Fluid 4.5 Fluid Pressure 4.6 Fluid Temperature 4.7 Fluid Flow Rate 4.8 Hydraulic Piping 4.9 Hydraulic Pumps 4.10 Fluid Conditioning 94 94 96 96 97 98 101 101 103 104 105 105 106 106 108 109 111 112 112 113 114 116 117 119 120 128 129 130 131 133 133 134 135 137 137 138 142 144 145 145 146 146 147 151 x Contents 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 5 Hydraulic Reservoir Warnings and Status Emergency Power Sources Proof of Design Aircraft System Applications 4.15.1 The Avro RJ Hydraulic System 4.15.2 The BAE SYSTEMS Hawk 200 Hydraulic System 4.15.3 Tornado Hydraulic System 4.16 Civil Transport Comparison 4.16.1 Airbus A320 4.16.2 Boeing 767 4.17 Landing Gear Systems 4.17.1 Nose Gear 4.17.2 Main Gear 4.17.3 Braking Anti-Skid and Steering 4.17.4 Electronic Control 4.17.5 Automatic Braking 4.17.6 Multi-Wheel Systems 4.17.7 Brake Parachute 152 152 153 154 155 156 Electrical Systems 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Electrical Power Evolution 5.2 Aircraft Electrical System 5.3 Power Generation 5.3.1 DC Power Generation 5.3.2 AC Power Generation 5.3.3 Power Generation Control 5.4 Primary Power Distribution 5.5 Power Conversion and Energy Storage 5.5.1 Inverters 5.5.2 Transformer Rectifier Units (TRUs) 5.5.3 Auto-Transformers 5.5.4 Battery Chargers 5.5.5 Batteries 5.6 Secondary Power Distribution 5.6.1 Power Switching 5.6.2 Load Protection 5.7 Typical Aircraft DC System 5.8 Typical Civil Transport Electrical System 5.9 Electrical Loads 5.9.1 Motors and Actuation 5.9.2 DC Motors 5.9.3 AC Motors 5.9.4 Lighting 181 181 181 184 185 185 186 188 199 201 201 201 202 202 203 203 203 204 207 208 210 210 211 212 212 161 161 163 164 165 167 167 168 169 172 173 175 178 Contents xi 5.9.5 5.9.6 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 6 7 Heating Subsystem Controllers and Avionics Systems 5.9.7 Ground Power Emergency Power Generation 5.10.1 Ram Air Turbine 5.10.2 Backup Power Converters 5.10.3 Permanent Magnet Generators (PMGs) Recent Systems Developments 5.11.1 Electrical Load Management System (ELMS) 5.11.2 Variable Speed Constant Frequency (VSCF) 5.11.3 270 VDC Systems 5.11.4 More-Electric Aircraft (MEA) Recent Electrical System Developments 5.12.1 Airbus A380 Electrical System Overview 5.12.2 A400M 5.12.3 B787 Electrical Overview Electrical Systems Displays 213 213 214 214 215 215 216 218 218 220 227 227 228 229 234 234 237 Pneumatic Systems 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Use of Bleed Air 6.3 Engine Bleed Air Control 6.4 Bleed Air System Indications 6.5 Bleed Air System Users 6.5.1 Wing and Engine Anti-Ice 6.5.2 Engine Start 6.5.3 Thrust Reversers 6.5.4 Hydraulic Systems 6.6 Pitot Static Systems 6.6.1 Innovative Methods of Pitot-Static Measurement 239 239 240 244 247 247 248 250 251 251 252 Environmental Control Systems 7.1 Introduction 7.2 The Need for a Controlled Environment 7.2.1 Kinetic Heating 7.2.2 Solar Heating 7.2.3 Avionics Heat Loads 7.2.4 Airframe System Heat Loads 7.2.5 The Need for Cabin Conditioning 7.2.6 The Need for Avionics Conditioning 7.3 The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) 7.4 Environmental Control System Design 7.4.1 Ram Air Cooling 7.4.2 Fuel Cooling 259 259 260 260 261 262 262 262 263 263 266 266 267 256