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University of Arkansas, Fayetteville ScholarWorks@UARK Accounting Undergraduate Honors Theses Accounting 5-2016 Path to Higher Education Rebecca L. Francis Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarworks.uark.edu/acctuht Part of the Accounting Commons, and the Social Statistics Commons Recommended Citation Francis, Rebecca L., "Path to Higher Education" (2016). Accounting Undergraduate Honors Theses. 22. http://scholarworks.uark.edu/acctuht/22 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Accounting at ScholarWorks@UARK. It has been accepted for inclusion in Accounting Undergraduate Honors Theses by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UARK. For more information, please contact scholar@uark.edu, ccmiddle@uark.edu. Path to Higher Education Introduction Students graduating this May from universities in South Africa will be the first class that has grown up in the new South Africa. Since the fall of the apartheid regime in 1994, government policy on education has been reformed across the entire country and has seen tremendous results. For instance, grades 1 through 12 in public schools are now free for all students, whereas they had not been before. However, the hurdles that must be overcome by black students in South Africa are still unbelievably high, and the standards for education in poor areas are unbelievably low. This study focuses on a small, impoverished area in Cape Town, which is located on the Western Cape of South Africa. Those who are familiar with Nelson Mandela and his role in the anti-apartheid movement might recall that off the coast of Cape Town is where he spent 27 years in the Robben Island political prison. Cape Town’s cultural history is rich and violent. The effects of apartheid are felt on a daily basis, especially within the townships, where our research was conducted. A “township” is an informal living community in which the inhabitants live in crudely constructed shacks; in the United States it would be called a shantytown. 13.5 percent of the Cape Town population live in the townships; 94 percent of that population is black (City of Cape Town, 2011). Because these areas are culturally quite separate from the metropolitan city of Cape Town, we focused our study on the township of Philippi. Philippi was formed in 1974 at the height of apartheid when many black South Africans were forced to flee from the city to escape political conflict. According to a study conducted in 2014, the Philippi population is approximately 191,025 people, with 94.1 percent of that population being black (Anderson et al. 2009). The official language is Xhosa, one of South Africa’s “click” languages. In 2001 it was reported that the annual average income for a resident of Philippi was 16,718 South African Rand, which translates to about $3,024 (City of Cape Town, 2011). 1 Path to Higher Education The public schools in Philippi have been rebuilt by the government and are nice facilities, especially when compared to the surrounding area. Students are required to wear uniforms, different colors for different schools; but other than that there is little order when school is in session. Many times class does not start on time, there are no bells, and the walls reverberate every loud noise, creating a chaotic environment for learning. According to JM Smith of The DG Murray Trust, “There is also a strong tendency towards early drop-out from the educational system” (Smith, 2011, p. 7). Problems in the Philippi school system are prevalent with the simple quality of education hindered by the years of apartheid. The South African Education and Environment Project (SAEP) was formed in 1994 following the end of the apartheid era. The organization was formed to allow supplemental education of both academics as well as the beautiful environment in Cape Town, to flow into the emerging school system. Beginning as a small, US-based non-profit, the organization has flourished over the last 20 years, now occupying two floors of an office building in Cape Town with a full-time staff of over 50 people. As it grew alongside the new South Africa, it morphed and reformed to meet the needs of the city and continually pursue its mission: Prepare and motivate children and youth from under-resourced communities to thrive, through education, life skills and psycho-social support (SAEP, 2016). Today SAEP operates with a holistic structure, providing programs for students from pre-school through college. They also provide psycho-social programs for parents in Philippi. One of the most important divisions within SAEP is the Impact Centre. Started in 2013, the Centre employs 5 men and women whose function is to provide support to all of the other programs. They develop website content, work with teachers on program development, provide career counseling, and most importantly, conduct research. This project’s research team was brought in to meet the needs of the middle school and high school programs at SAEP: The Hope Scholars and ADT Teach (named after ADT 2 Path to Higher Education Company, who fully funds the program), respectively. The Hope Scholars Program (grades 8 and 9) strives to help students “identify and close educational gaps in key subjects so that they can excel in later grades” (SAEP). ADT Teach (grades 10-12) is “an information and communications technology (ICT) computer literacy programme” (SAEP, 2016). Both programs are headed by a small group of teachers that struggle to keep up with the amount of students enrolled each year. Students experience extreme obstacles when attempting to further their studies. It is because of these obstacles to higher education that SAEP began to offer career counseling to their students. By the spring of 2015, this counseling had been provided to students in both programs for multiple years, yet no one had collected any data or followed up to track the effect of the counseling. As a result, the development of SAEP students after graduation was widely unknown by SAEP staff, making it difficult to understand how to improve the programs. Thus, this study focuses on understanding the career aspirations of teenage SAEP students living in the impoverished township of Philippi. This was the first of hopefully many surveys on student’s goals for the future, creating a baseline for future study. The ultimate goal was to provide SAEP program teachers with substantial data on their students’ career goals, thereby allowing them to better plan career-focused curriculums. In short, a path to higher education. Literature review In the Path to Higher Education research project, the research team sought to understand students’ career and education aspirations, what influenced those choices, and what, if any, access students had to quality advice and information. The process of the literature review took place over the course of two months prior to arrival in Cape Town. At a foundational level, the team relied on secondary sources to inform understanding of the school system in Cape Town townships. Growing up in the New South Africa especially helped explain the challenges Philippi students face: their home lives, their secondary school and classroom experiences, and how they view their education (Bray, 2010). Though this book was about other townships in Cape Town, much of the book’s conclusions applied to Philippi as well. SAEP’s Philippi profile applied to the Philippi context (Anderson, 2009). 3 Path to Higher Education Shaping the Future of South Africa’s Youth: Rethinking Post-School Education and Skills Training provided an in-depth look at how South Africa’s higher education system (qualifications, application process, etc.) works. The “complexity of the qualifications system” for tertiary institutions contributes to students and parents’ confusion over “where best to invest their very scarce resources in post-school education or training in order to access the labour market” (Perold, 2012, p. 187). As resources are slim, students and their parents are obligated to make decisions about tertiary education without much help. Additionally, the complexity of these decisions is not aided by clear guidance or information. Skills for Inclusive Growth indicated that little is known about why people choose particular courses of study and reinforced the assumption that students made such decisions “based on hearsay, on incorrect information, and on pressure in the family or from peers” (DBSA, 2010, p.35). Connecting Young South Africans to Opportunity outlined the current research on students’ “lack of information, guidance, and job search capability” (Smith, 2011, p. 34). This lack of or misinformation manifested in a variety of places. Skills for Inclusive Growth also suggested that students “arrive at institutions, wanting to do a particular course of study but do not have the school subjects required. They dropout because they do not have information on what courses require and are unable to decide for themselves what course of study to pursue” (DBSA, 2010 p. 36). Additionally, Connecting Young South Africans to Opportunity outlined the hurdles facing youths’ efforts to achieve employment, including a lack of education, foundational skills, and high rates of high school drop-out (Smith, 2011). This paper asserted that, though a matric pass is the first step to gainful employment, it is not a ticket to higher education. The assumption was that most students believed this to be true. Finally, the literature provided useful insight into what influences students’ decisions. Mark Watson et al found that more than 80 percent of surveyed students in grades 5 and 6 aspired to high status occupations (Watson et al., 2010). In From School to Higher Education: Factors Affecting the Choices of Grade 12 Learners, Michael Cosser and Jacquers Du Toit found 14 separate factors influencing students, 4 Path to Higher Education with enhancing employability, interest in a field of study and if it leads to higher income as the top three (2002). The creation of the research tool was influenced by many sources. Thompson et al discusses the factors that contribute to career decision self-efficacy in young people in the article The Relation of Social Status to the Career Decision-Making Process. The ultimate conclusion of this study was that, while highly predictive of career decision self-efficacy, social status is not the only factor at play. Rather, perceived social status is more important for young people (Thompson 299). In that sense, the survey prompts were that of a qualitative nature, intended to pull out students’ thoughts on their own social status, as well as to understand cultural norms with respect to higher education. Additionally, Mark Watson’s Occupational Aspirations of Low Socioeconomic Black South African Children was highly enlightening, due to its uncanny resemblance to this project. Within the small scope of this study, the team was able to use Watson’s research findings to enhance the survey questions, specifically in developing hypotheses. He found and provided a list of most popular jobs among students (Watson et al., 2010). These jobs were corroborated by a target group of recently graduated Philippi students enrolled in SAEP’s Bridging Year program. Watson et al also found that “the majority of the children aspired to occupations of a higher status level than they are likely to achieve if one considers South African labor statistics” (Watson et al., 2010, p. 728). This finding is reflected in our list of hypotheses: H1: The students lack clear guidance or knowledge about tertiary education. H2: The students maintain false expectations for their career goals. H3: The students’ career goals are motivated by a desire for high status and respectability. H4: The students have lofty goals for their future careers. The students enrolled in SAEP programs, as well as all other students in the townships, are severely debilitated by the South African school system. Although progress has been made in the last 21 years, the system is far from perfect; and the students in the townships must work harder to be successful. 5 Path to Higher Education The JM Smith in Connecting Youth South Africans to Opportunity cites multiple reasons for the lack of opportunity for students, including lack of entrepreneurship, lack of work-related capabilities, and early school drop-out (Smith 6-8). In addition to these things, it seems that the most important factor is the lack of available higher education. In an article entitled Pathways Through the Education and Training System: Do We Need a New Model? the author Cosser discusses research conducted by the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) on this matter by suggesting that “colleges have been closed down and for a variety of reasons… universities loom disproportionately large in the post-school learner imagination” (Cosser, 2011, p. 71). The lack of availability, as well as poor advertising, have led students in poor areas to imagine that university is their only option, when in fact, community colleges and technical school are sometimes even more reliable options (Cosser, 2011). Methodology With these resources in hand, the process of creating a proper research tool began. Due to the severe time constraints on the project, it was decided that a survey should be administered to as many students as possible. The final participant demographics are displayed are displayed in Table 1. The survey started as a two-page document, featuring an extensive Likert-scale questionnaire and other qualitative prompts (Exhibits 1 and 2). Over a period of four weeks, this survey changed drastically with help from SAEP staff members, as there were many issues to address. The most time-sensitive issue was when to administer the survey. Upon arrival into the country, the students were entering their system’s equivalent of finals season. For three weeks, all students were busy “writing exams” and so were not available for survey-taking. It was determined that the most convenient time for ADT Teach students was directly following exams, during SAEP’s week-long holiday program. The Hope Scholars would take it the following week. That timeline left roughly four weeks to revise and pilot the survey. Table 1: Participant Demographics 6 Path to Higher Education Male Female TOTAL 39 Grade 9 15 24 (22%) 56 Grade 10 18 38 (31%) 58 Grade 11 23 35 (32%) 27 Grade 12 7 20 (15%) 63 117 180 participants TOTAL (34%) (66%) (100%) The survey questions themselves were developed by extensive discussion between the Impact Centre staff and the research team. As previously mentioned, the research tool needed extensive revising from the original document. The hope was to obtain narrative responses from the students for a more complete set of information; however, after consulting SAEP staff and local Xhosa speakers, it was determined that the survey needed to be more broken up, with short responses required for each prompt, in order to facilitate understanding. Throughout the process of making revisions, the language barrier presented the most complications. The high school ADT Teach students were more than capable of completing the survey in English; however, the middle school aged Hope Scholars were not as experienced in their second language. The team consulted an SAEP staff member who had knowledge of translating English to Xhosa, and it was advised that the team revise the Hope Scholar survey to more remedial English, so that it could be better understood. The translation process from English to Xhosa is extensive, as the two languages are not similar in structure. The rewording of the Hope Scholars survey allowed for more efficient analysis, as well as providing practice in English for the younger students. The final issue that needed to be addressed was the vocabulary used in the survey. After many revisions, the surveys were presented to a native Philippi Xhosa speaker, who informed the team that the word choice was skewed toward American English, rather than South African English. For this reason, some parts of the survey were rephrased to be more easily understood, especially within the Hope 7 Path to Higher Education Scholars survey (see Exhibit 2). The survey was also piloted to a small group of students in the days prior to administration in order to make final adjustments based on phrases they found difficult to interpret. Minor phrasing changes were made, and the students in the ADT Teach program that volunteered to pilot the survey were excluded from the final results. The administration of the survey was over a period of two weeks. Both ADT Teach students and Hope Scholars took the surveys during SAEP program time, so that at least 3 adults were available for help. It was necessary to clarify the more complex prompts prior to the students beginning the survey. A perfectly controlled environment could not be obtained, but overall the environment for administration was a typical classroom setting, with no more than 20 students participating at one time. Survey results were collected, coded into Microsoft Excel, and analyzed using Excel’s pivot table function. Results Students were asked to indicate what job they wanted. 60 percent of all participants listed a job that is considered high profile (doctor, chartered accountant, and engineer). 36 percent listed a mid-profile job (e.g., journalist, manager, and teacher). 1 percent listed a low-profile job (e.g., personal assistant, and security guard). The number of students who wanted a high profile job had a negative relationship to the student’s grade: 69 percent of ninth graders listed a high profile job, while only 44 percent of twelfth graders did. In contrast, the number of mid-profile jobs had a positive relationship to grade: 28 percent of ninth graders indicated a mid-profile job, while 56 percent of twelfth graders did. See Graph 1. Students were asked which factors they found most important when choosing a job. 62 percent (88 students) marked enjoyment/skill as the most important factor in their choice. When split up by grade, this number decreased as grade increased. There was no significant difference between males and females. 17 percent (24 students) marked that the job is high paying as most important. 11 percent marked that people respect people who do that work, and 9 percent marked the job’s accessibility. Concerning respectability, 34 percent listed respect of the job as the least important factor to their decision. This number was decidedly higher for respondents in the twelfth grade: 59 percent listed respect as least 8